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PliY|«!OUTH 

The  Original  General  Purpose  Breed,  and  the  First  Breed  Made  in  America. 
BY  COURTESY  OF  A.  C.   HAWKINS. 


FARM-POULTRY    SERIES.      NO.    5. 


POULTRY-GRAFT, 


A  TEXT-BOOK  FOR  POULTRY  KEEPERS. 


FULLY     ILLUSTRATED. 


WHAT    TO    DO. 

HOW    TO    DO    IT 


BY 


JOHN   H.   ROBINSON.         \ 


Completely   Indexed   for  the  Convenience  of   Busy  People. 


PUBLISHED   BY 

FARM-POULTRY  PUBLISHING  CO.,  BOSTON,  MASS. 
1904. 


Copyright,  1899, 
BY 

1.  S.  JOHNSON  &  CO. 
BOSTON,  MASS. 


Press  of  S.  G.  Robinson,  267  Atlantic  Ave.,  Boston. 


PREFACE. 


For  those  who  want  to  know  about  poultry  keeping,  for  those  who  wish 
to  learn  poultry  keeping,  and  for  poultry  keepers  who  cannot  always 
remember  things  they  know  at  the  moment  they  happen  to  need  them,  this 
book  was  written:  to  the  small  army  of  writers  of  permanent  and  current 
poultry  literature,  nearly  every  one  of  whom  has  in  some  way  contributed 
to  its  making,  it  is  respectfully  dedicated. 

The  growing  interest  in  fine  fowls  and  the  widening  of  the  field  of  profit- 
able operations  in  poultry  culture  have  created  a  demand  for  a  book  which 
will  give  to  one  who  thinks  of  engaging  in  poultry  keeping  an  intelligent 
understanding  of  its  possibilities  and  probabilities,  whether  for  pleasure  or 
profit,  and  a  comprehensive  idea  of  the  ways  and  means  of  production  and 
distribution  of  this  country's  enormous  crops  of  poultry  and  eggs.  Following 
this  demand  comes  another,  for  a  book  of  elementary  instruction  in  all  branches 
of  poultry  keeping.  Separate  books  to  meet  these  demands  would  be,  in  large 
part,  duplicates,  because  before  beginning  it  is  necessary  one  should  know, 
though  superficially,  many  things  which  afterward  he  must  learn  thoroughly 
if  his  work  with  poultry  is  to  be  successful.  With  systematic,  logical  arrange- 
ment of  the  text,  and  with  a  complete  carefully  prepared  index  it  was  possible 
to  make  a  book  of  information  for  inquirers  and  instruction  for  beginners,  also 
a  book  for  ready  reference  on  poultry  topics.  There  has  long  been  pressing 
need  of  such  a  book.  For  years  the  publishers  have  had  frequent  calls  for  a 
book  to  which  a  poultry  keeper  could  go  for  information  on  any  and  every 
matter,  and  find  it  in  an  instant. 

It  is,  perhaps,  superfluous  to  say  of  such  a  book  that  it  is  essentially  a  com- 
pilation. This  is  measurably  true  even  of  the  matter  not  credited  to  other 
writers.  My  work  has  been  to  condense  and  put  in  convenient  form  infor- 
mation which  by  reason  of  its  abundance  and  the  multitude  of  its  sources  has 
not  been  available  for  those  who  needed  it  most, —  to  give,  as  it  were,  the 
composite  opinion  of  sometimes  conflicting  authorities  on  each  matter  treated. 
That  conclusions  should  invariably  be  correct  and  every  estimate  unaffected 
by  his  personal  opinion,  would  be  more  than  a  writer  could  hope,  and  more 
than  a  reader  ought  to  expect ;  but,  as  I  have  endeavored  to  state  each  subject 

445127 


iv.  PREFACE. 

treated  fairly,  honestly,  and  (as  I  believe)  in  accordance  with  the  best  interests 
of  those  for  whom  the  book  is  written,  I  feel  confident  that  no  one  of  them 
will  find  in  it  statements  that  will  mislead,  or  advice  which  he  will  follow  to 
his  disadvantage  and  loss. 

The  matter  of  credits  for  borrowed  matter  in  a  book  composed  as  this  is, 
requires  particular  mention.  Only  a  few  of  the  more  important  direct  quo- 
tations are  fully  credited.  Matter  which  has  been  adapted,  condensed,  and 
rearranged  in  harmony  with  the  scheme  of  the  work,  is  credited  generally  to 
the  author  only  —  the  name  of  the  paper  or  book  from  which  it  is  taken  not 
being  added,  because  in  a  number  of  cases  a  short  paragraph  is  compiled  from 
statements  of  the  same  writer  in  several  different  books  and  papers,  and  to 
give  each  paper  credit  would  have  detracted  too  much  from  the  simplicity  of 
statement  sought.  Food  rations  taken  from  contributions  of  writers  describing 
the  methods  of  others,  are  credited  to  the  persons  using  the  rations. 

For  the  rest,  while  acknowledging  a  general  indebtedness  to  the  poultry 
literature  of  the  day,  I  would  here  acknowledge  special  indebtedness  to  the 
books  and  paper  consulted  most : — to  Poultry  Culture,  Felch  ;  The  Practical 
Poultry  Keeper,  Wright ;  Poultry,  McFetridge  ;  Incubation  and  Its  Natu- 
ral Laws,  Cyphers  ;  The  Practical  Poultry  Grower,  Myrick ;  Broilers  for 
Profit,  and  A  Living  From  Poultry,  Boyer  ;  Duck  Culture,  Rankin  ;  Farm- 
Poultry  Doctor,  Sanborn  ;  to  files  of  Farm- Poultry  for  the  views  of  a  great 
number  of  writers  on  almost  every  topic  treated ;  to  the  Reliable  Poultry 
Journal  for  matter  pertaining  to  many  subjects,  but  especially  for  information 
relating  to  the  mating  of  thoroughbred  fowls,  and  to  turkeys,  ducks,  and  geese  ; 
to  the  American  Fancier,  Poultry  Monthly,  American  Poultry  Journal,  and 
Poultry  Herald  for  many  valuable  suggestions ;  and  to  various  national  and 
state  bulletins  for  information  regarding  foods  and  feeding. 

The  illustrations  not  otherwise  credited  were  made  for  this  book,  or  are 
reproduced  from  Farm- Poultry. 

JOHN  H.  ROBINSON. 

Waltham,  Mass.,  1899. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I. 
POULTRY  KEEPING  AND  POULTRY  KEEPERS  ...         j 

CHAPTER   II. 
LOCATION  —  SITUATION  -  .  .  -       17 

CHAPTER   III. 
POULTRY  HOUSES  AND  YARDS  -  .  .  -       23 

CHAPTER   IV. 
POULTRY  FIXTURES  .  .  -53 

CHAPTER   V. 
FOWLS  DESCRIBED  .  .  .  -       61 

CHAPTER   VI. 
CHOOSING  A  VARIETY  —  BUYING  STOCK  -  .  .  ...     Si 

CHAPTER   VII. 
FOODS  AND  FEEDING      -,  .  .  .  V      92 

CHAPTER   VIII. 
SCIENCE  IN  POULTRY  FEEDING  -  -  •  .  .     IOQ 


vi.  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  IX. 
EGG  PRODUCTION  -  -  -  -  -     121 

CHAPTER   X. 
PRINCIPLES   OF    BREEDING  —  SELECTION    AND    CARE    OF    BREEDING 

STOCK       -  ...     144 

CHAPTER   XI. 
HATCHING  AND  REARING  CHICKS  ...     ^5 

CHAPTER   XII. 
SELLING  POULTRY  AND  EGGS    -  -  -  -     186 

CHAPTER  XIII. 
EXHIBITING  POULTRY     -  ...     203 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
DISEASES,  PARASITES,  AND  ENEMIES  OF  FOWLS          ...     209 

CHAPTER  XV. 
BANTAMS  -  -  -  .     217 

CHAPTER  XVI. 
TURKEYS  -  -  -  .     221 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

DUCKS     w  ...     233 

CHAPTER   XVIII. 
GEESE      •  -  -  '-  V  -  -  .  .     249 

APPENDIX  r«  -  .          "^  ...     258 

INDEX      -  -  -  ----..     262 


POULTRY-CRAFT. 


CHAPTER 


Poultry  Keeping  and  Poultry  Keepers. 

1.  Classification. —  Business  and  pleasure  are  often  combined  in  poultry 
keeping.  This,  and  the  complexity  of  the  relations  of  the  different  branches 
of  the  industry,  makes  a  classification  of  poultry  keepers  difficult.  The  out- 
line presented  here  will,  however,  give  the  reader  at  a  glance  an  idea  of  the 
relations  of  the  different  branches  to  each  other,  and  of  the  principal  com- 
binations which  occur. 


POULTRY 
KEEPING. 


C  As  a  business.  f  Market  poultry. 

For  Profit.        j  As  an  employment,  j  High  class  breeding 
^  As  an  investment.       ^  and  exhibition  stock. 

C  For  family  use. 


For  Pleasure.   <   For  exhibition, 
v  For  fancy. 

2.  Poultry  Keeping  as  a  Business. —  This  is  poultry  keeping  as 
carried  on  by  those  who  invest  in  it  their  capital  and  give  it  their  time.  The 
last  mentioned  condition  distinguishes  it  from  poultry  keeping  as  an  invest- 
ment. Only  in  recent  years  has  poultry  keeping  taken  a  place  among 
recognized  industries.  The  bulk  of  the  country's  enormous  crop  of  poultry 
products  comes  from  many  hundreds  of  thousands  of  small  producers.  The 
number  of  poultry  keepers  making  a  living  from  the  production  of  eggs  and 
poultry  is  very  small  compared  with  the  great  number  of  small  producers, 
but  is  rapidly  increasing.  To  make  the  business  successful  a  man  must  be  an 
expert  in  the  management  of  fowls,  and  must  have  good  business  judgment, 
with  enough  business  training  to  make  him  accurate,  methodical  and  prompt 
in  his  work  and  dealings.  Many  of  the  successful  poultrymen  of  today  were 
not  experts  when  they  began.  Many  learned  business  methods  as  their 
establishments  grew.  One  who  would  make  such  examples  of  success  the 
excuse  for  giving  his  capital,  time  and  labor  to  an  occupation  he  does  not 
understand  should  remember  that,  when  these  men  began,  the  problem  of 
profitably  keeping  fowls  in  large  numbers  had  not  been  solved,  and  successes 
with  fowls  in  small  numbers  were  mostly  matters  of  chance.  With  rare 
exceptions  they  began  with  very  limited  capital.  Lack  of  capital  made  it 


i&  i  I  4-A  P0  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 

t      t    l  i  -         *  *    i  c  ii  ».        e      fc  v 

quite  impossible  for  their  plants  to  grow  beyond  their  ability  to  manage  them. 
These  men  were  pioneers  in  poultrying.  The  records  of  their  progress  are 
found  in  modern  books  on  poultry,  and  in  the  files  of  the  poultry  journals. 
The  results  of  their  work  may  be  seen  in  up-to-date  poultry  plants,  and  in  the 
methods  in  use  on  such  plants.  The  beginner  of  today  finds  sources  of 
information  and  instruction  to  which  his  predecessors  could  not  resort.  He 
would  be  foolish,  indeed,  not  to  take  advantage  of  such  opportunities.  A 
man  should  learn  the  business  before  engaging  in  it  on  his  own  account. 
Books  and  papers  are  within  the  reach  of  all.  Practical  instruction  is  more 
difficult  to  obtain — the  difficulty  being  to  some  extent  due  to  the  fact  that 
those  who  want  instruction  are  so  often  unwilling  to  pay  for  it.  Too  many 
have  thought  a  few  months  of  their  unskilled  labor  on  a  poultry  farm  would 
•amply  pay  for  time  devoted  to  teaching  them,  for  losses  and  damages  due  to 
their  inexperience,  and  for  the  opportunity  to  draw  at  will  on  the  accumulated 
knowledge  of  an  expert  poultryman.  Those  qualified  to  give  instruction  will 
not  take  pupils  on  such  terms. 

3.  How  Much  Income.  —  Business  Risks.  —  A  living  from  poultry  is 
surer  to  one  who  makes  it  his  business  than  are  profits  from  poultry  to  one 
investing  in  a  poultry  plant  to  be  conducted  by  another.       To  give  a  definite 
idea  of  the  amount  to  be  annually  realized  from  a  plant  of  any  given  capacity, 
would  be  as  impossible  as  to  estimate  in  advance  the  annual  profits  in  any 
business.     People  do  make  such  estimates;  but,  how  often  are  they  right?     It 
may  be  said,  however,  that  except  in  a  few  rare  instances,  poultry  keeping  is 
not  a  lucrative  business.     Very  few  poultry  men  are  making  more  than  a  good 
living.     Whether  one  can  make  a  living  from  poultry,  will  depend  on  his  fit- 
ness for  the  business,  his  judgment  in  choosing  a  location,  and  on  the  effects 
of  influences  by  which,  like  every  other  business,  this  is  affected.     The  poul- 
try keeper  is  subject  to  all  ordinary  business  risks.      Those  who  go  into  this 
business  should  not  fail  to  consider ;  that, 

Success,  the  success  that  brings  a  living  from  poultry,  means  work  — 
hand  work,  head  work,  and  hard  work.  This  is  a  condition  not  peculiar  to 
poultry  keeping ;  that, 

Prices  fluctuate,  and  profits  vary  accordingly ;  and  that, 

Causes  beyond  a  manys  control  may  cause  his  failure,  or  delay  his  success. 

Those  points  need  to  be  emphasized,  because  of  some  serious  misconcep- 
tions which  have  arisen  in  regard  to  poultry  keeping  as  compared  with  other 
businesses.  It  is  unique  in  some  respects,  but  not  in  being  exempt  from 
influences  affecting  business  in  general. 

4.  More  About  Profits. — More  detailed   statements  concerning  profits 
can  now  be  given.     Having  read  the  last  paragraph,   no  one  need  misunder- 
stand the  statements  in  this.     Experienced  poultrymen  know  about  what  they 
can  count  on  under  favorable  circumstances.       They  also  know  how  to  make 


POULTRT-CRAFT.  9 

the  best  of  unfavorable  circumstances.  If  they  see  loss  coming  in  one  place 
they  make  special  efforts  to  offset  it  by  securing  extra  profit  in  another.  The 
average  profit  on  eggs,  at  market  prices,  is  one  dollar  per  year  per  hen.  This 
is  what  a  skilled  poultryman  considers  a  safe  figure.  One  dollar  a  head  is 
approximately  what  skill  secures  from  large  flocks — for  eggs  alone.  The 
best  authority  on  broilers  places  the  average  profit  per  bird  at  not  over  twenty 
cents.  On  eggs  for  hatching,  sold  at  two  dollars  a  sitting,  the  profit  will 
rarely  exceed  a  dollar  a  sitting ;  often  will  not  reach  that  figure.  A  breeder 
whose  trade  is  in  stock  birds  selling  at  one  to  five  dollars  per  head,  will  aver- 
age about  two  dollars  per  bird.  If  he  has  managed  his  stock  right  nearly  all 
of  this  will  be  profit.  It  is  easily  seen  that  at  these  figures  there  is  no  "big 
money"  in  the  business.  In  fact,  in  market  poultry  alone  one  does  not  find 
it  easy  to  make  a  living  unless  his  plant  is  large  and  much  of  the  work  is  done 
by  cheap  labor.  The  profitable  combination  for  a  small  plant  is  one  which 
with  a  stock  of  thoroughbred  poultry  averaging  for  the  year  three  hundred  to 
four  hundred  hens,  yields  a  profit  of  $300  to  $400  for  market  eggs ;  about 
$ i oo  for  eggs  for  hatching;  $150  to  $200  for  market  poultry;  and  $200  to 
$300  for  breeding  stock — in  all  $750  to  $1,000.  Something  like  this  is  what 
a  fairly  skillful  poultryman  without  special  reputation  as  a  breeder  of  high 
class  stock  may  expect  from  a  plant  on  which  he  can  do  all  the  work,  and 
which,  if  he  constructs  the  buildings  himself,  will  cost  anywhere  from  $1,000 
to  $1,500  in  addition  to  the  cost  of  the  land  and  the  first  cost  of  the  stock.  It 
is  not  safe  to  figure  an  income  on  the  basis  of  the  large  profits  sometimes 
reported  for  single  flocks,  or  for  a  season's  work  under  exceptionally  favorable 
conditions.  Nor  is  it  wise  for  a  beginner  to  count  on  profits  as  large  as  those 
of  the  more  successful  poultryman,  which  are  often  much  greater  than  the 
figures  here  given.  When  one  begins  to  see  the  big  prices  and  big  profits 
coming  his  way  it  is  time  enough  to  begin  estimates  with  the  big  figures. 
Though  not  to  be  used  as  bases  of  estimates,  the  prices  of  high  class  stock 
merit  attention  as  showing  what  is  possible  when  ability  to  breed  good  stock, 
and  reputation  as  a  breeder,  have  been  acquired.  Prices  for  eggs  range  from 
$3  to  $5  per  sitting;  $5,  $10,  $15,  are  quite  common  prices  for  fowls  for 
breeding  and  for  the  smaller  exhibitions.  Prices  of  birds  "fit"  for  the  larger 
shows  range  from  the  figures  given  up  to  $25,  $35,  $50,  $100.  Single  birds 
have  been  sold  as  high  as  $250.  Just  how  much  of  these  various  amounts  is 
profit,  it  is  not  possible  to  even  approximately  average,  for  this  class  of 
breeders  never  make  their  accounts  public  as  market  poultry  men  so  often  do. 
The  expenses  of  exhibiting  and  advertising  are  considerable.  Yet  the  pro- 
portion of  profit  to  price  is  greater  than  when  sales  are  made  at  small  figures, 
and,  generally,  the  higher  the  price  the  greater  the  proportion  of  profit.  To 
the  limited  number  who  can  get  these  prices,  poultry  keeping,  whether  an 
exclusive  business,  a  side  issue,  or  a  recreation,  is  very  profitable.  The 
beginner,  while  disregarding  them  in  his  present  calculations,  may  look 
forward  to  them  as  the  rewards  of  special  ability. 


io  PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 

5.  Is  There  Danger  of  Overdoing  the  Business?  —  The  United  States 
imports  annually  about  one  million  dozens  of  eggs.     This  fact  is  often  cited 
to  show  that  the  business  is  in  no  danger  of  being  overdone.     It  is  assumed 
that,  as  long  as  eggs  are  imported  the  domestic  supply  must  be  inadequate. 
A  comparison  of  the  amount  of  imports  with  the  total  home  product,  shows 
that  this  assumption  is  a  fallacy.      A  million  dozen  is  less  than  one-tenth  of 
one  per  cent  of  the  (estimated)  total  annual  egg  crop.      In  effect  the  nation 
produces  all  the  poultry  and  eggs  it  uses,  and  consumes  all  it  produces.     Dur- 
ing a  considerable  portion  of  each  year  the  markets  are  glutted  with  stock  of 
inferior  quality.     The  kind  of  poultry  keeping  which  produces  such  stock  is 
already  overdone.     On  the  other   hand,   the  demand  for  stock  of   superior 
quality  is  in  advance  of  the  supply,  and  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that 
this  condition  will  continue  for  a  long  time.       A  poultryman  making  a  wise 
choice  of  location  with  reference  to  this  demand,  and  producing  articles  of  the 
grade  it  calls  for,  need  have  no  fears  of  overstocking  his  market.     In  the  trade 
in  breeding  and  exhibition  stock,  conditions  are  different.       Successful  sales 
depend  much  on  reputation  and  skillful  advertising.     Lacking  these,  breeders 
often  fail  to  sell  really  fine  stock  of  varieties  in  good  demand. 

6.  Comparison  of  the  Different  Branches  of  Poultry  Keeping. — 

Attention  has  already  been  called  to  the  advisability  of  combining  branches 
of  the  industry.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  poultry  keepers  doing  an  exclusive 
business  cannot  keep  to  one  branch.  A  living  from  poultry  requires  com- 
binations, and  some  branches  depend  on  others.  The  egg  farmer  who  rears 
his  layers,  as  nearly  all  do,  has  large  quantities  of  poultry  to  sell.  The 
broiler  farmer  who  produces  on  his  own  plant  the  eggs  for  his  incubators  — 
and  this  is  the  only  way  to  get  reliable  eggs  in  quantity  —  has  eggs  to  sell 
during  a  part  of  the  year.  Besides,  broiler  raising  is  a  business  for  a  season. 
It  has  never  been  made  profitable  on  a  large  scale  as  an  exclusive  business. 
In  connection  with  an  egg  farm,  or  as  winter  employment  for  those  whose 
regular  occupation  leaves  them  idle  in  winter,  it  pays.  Sales  of  eggs  for 
hatching  are  limited  to  a  few  months  in  the  spring.  The  bulk  of  the  trade  in 
breeding  stock  is  done  in  the  first  three  months  of  the  year.  Expenses  keep 
steadily  on  through  every  twelvemonth.  So  it  comes  about  that,  though  one 
may  start  business  intending  to  confine  himself  to  a  single  branch,  he  is 
obliged  to  make  a  combination  like  that  suggested  in  ^[4,  in  order  to 
handle  his  stock  to  best  advantage  and  have  a  regular  income.  He  may  give 
relatively  more  or  less  attention  to  the  various  branches  than  is  suggested 
there,  but  that  combination,  in  some  proportions,  is  the  one  to  which  a 
poultry  business,  large  or  small,  inevitably  tends. 

7.  Poultry   Keeping   as   an   Adjunct   of  Another   Business. —  The 

greater  number  of  those  deriving  a  considerable  income  from  poultry  keeping 
conduct  it  as  an  adjunct  of  another  business,  as  farming,  fruit  growing, 


POULTRT-CRAFT.  n 

gardening,  dairying.  The  reasons  for  this  are  similar  to  those  which  lead  to 
diversified  farming.  It  is  often  found  that  a  stock  of  poultry  can  be  handled, 
in  connection  with  some  other  occupation,  with  greater  profit  than  would 
come  from  giving  more  attention  to  the  other  occupation,  or  from  an  exclusive 
poultry  business.  A  good  example  is  where  a  milkman  finds  his  income  too 
small  for  his  living,  and  the  demand  for  milk  not  great  enough  to  justify 
increasing  his  herd.  In  such  a  case  a  man  of  judgment  combines  with  his 
established  business  another,  profits  from  which  will  round  out  his  income. 
Poultry  keeping  is  well  adapted  to  such  combinations,  and  is  well  worth  the 
consideration  of  anyone  so  situated  that  he  must  combine  two  occupations. 
It  should  be  added  that  such  combinations  ought  to  be  made  only  in  the 
extreme  cases ;  that  is,  where  the  business  is  so  small  that  one  can  give  per- 
sonal supervision  to  every  part  of  it ;  or  where,  as  on  some  large  stock  or  fruit 
farms,  there  is  an  opportunity  to  keep  fowls  on  ground  used  partly  for  other 
purposes,  and  on  a  scale  large  enough  to  warrant  the  employment  of  a  skillful 
poultryman.  Attempts  to  combine  poultry  keeping  with  other  occupations 
when  there  is  more  work  than  the  proprietor  can  personally  do  or  oversee, 
and  less  than  will  make  it  worth  while  to  engage  an  expert  poultryman, 
almost  uniformly  result  in  losses. 

8.  Poultry  Keeping  as  an  Employment. — As  an  employment  poul- 
try keeping  offers,  to  both  skilled  and  unskilled  labor,  opportunities  similar  to 
those  afforded  in  other  lines  of  animal  and  plant  culture.      Wages  for  skilled 
labor  vary,  depending  on  the  size  of  the  plant,  the  ability  of  the  man,  the 
amount  of  responsibility  assumed.     A  fair  average  of  the  wages  paid  poultry- 
men  who  attend  to  and  partially  supervise  the  work  on  a  plant,  but  have  noth- 
ing to  do  with  financial   management,  is   $60  a  month,  or  $40  and  board. 
Those  who  take  complete  management  receive  more  —  sometimes  much  more. 
Unskilled  laborers  on  poultry  plants  are  paid,  in  any  given  locality,  about  the 
same  as  farm  and  dairy  hands  in  that  locality.      One  wishing  to  estimate  the 
ins  and  outs  of  poultry  keeping  as  an  employment,  may  consider  it  in  this 
way :  In  a  year  an  expert  poultryman  will  earn  about  the  same  as  the  average 
mechanic  of  the  same  relative  degree  of  skill.     He  will  have  steadier  work  at 
a  lower  rate  of  wages,  will  work  longer  hours,  have  less  leisure.      There  will 
be  little  danger  of  his  being  at  any  time  long  out  of  work.     The  demand  for 
expert  poultrymen  is  likely  to  continue  in  excess  of  the  supply. 

9.  The  Poultry    Business   as   an    Investment. — Many    people    are 
looking  to  poultry  keeping  as  an  investment  for  surplus  funds.     The  profit- 
ableness of  such  ventures  will  depend  —  first,  on  the  judgment  shown  in  select- 
ing a  location,  determining  what  branches  of  the  business  are  to  be  followed, 
and  choosing  a  manager ;  next,  though  to  a  less  extent  than  in  the  case  of 
one  whose  all  is  invested  in  his  business,  on  the  influence  of  the   conditions 
mentioned    in    ^3.     The    man    who    has    capital    to  back  him    can  weather 


12  POULTRT-CRAFT. 

adverse  storms  which  swamp  the  poultryman  of  limited  means.  No  one 
should  invest  money  in  a  poultry  plant  until  he  has  enough  general  knowledge 
of  the  business  to  enable  him  to  make  an  intelligent  estimate  of  the  advantages 
and  disadvantages  of  different  locations,  considered  with  reference  to  the 
branch  of  the  business  to  be  followed  ;  of  the  qualifications  of  applicants  for 
the  position  of  manager ;  and,  of  the  probabilities  of  his  investment  proving 
satisfactory.  Most  of  those  who  have  made  losing  investments  in  poultry  have 
put  their  money  out  first,  and  acquired  the  knowledge  that  would  have  enabled 
them  to  invest  wisely  afterward.  Many  have  been  led  into  rash  ventures  in 
poultry  keeping  by  the  belief  that  large  profits  would  be  realized  from  the 
outset.  It  usually  requires  several  years  to  thoroughly  equip  a  poultry  plant 
and  place  it  on  a  paying  basis.  The  history  of  most  large  plants  shows  that 
this  has  been  the  case,  even  when  abundance  of  capital  was  at  command. 
The  man  with  capital  makes  large  plans,  which  it  requires  time  to  carry  out. 
Practical  poultry  keeping  as  an  investment  must  be  on  a  large  scale ;  on  a 
small  scale,  even  a  prosperous  business  could  not  be  expected  to  do  more  than 
make  a  living  for  the  manager  and  his  assistants.  Some  of  the  most  profitable 
plants  of  this  class  combine  market  and  "  fancy"  poultry  breeding.  There 
are  numerous  instances  of  persons  of  means  breeding  fowls  both  for  pleasure 
and  as  an  investment,  taking  a  very  active  interest  in  the  stock,  but  leaving 
the  actual  management  of  the  poultry  in  the  hands  of  a  manager.  An  invest- 
ment of  this  kind  is  probably  the  most  profitable  that  can  be  made.  A  study 
of  the  subject  of  poultry  culture  as  set  forth  in  this  book  will  give  a  good  basis 
of  knowledge  of  the  matters  one  needs  to  know  before  investing.  Further 
information  should  be  sought  in  current  poultry  journals.  The  information 
derived  from  these  sources  should  be  supplemented  by  careful  examinations  of 
up-to-date  poultry  plants,  and  a  study  of  the  conditions,  both  general  and  local, 
of  production  and  consumption  of  poultry  products. 

10.  How  to  Learn  Poultry  Keeping. — Poultry  keeping  must  be 
learned  just  as  any  other  trade  is  learned  —  preferably  by  going  to  work  for  a 
poultryman.  Opportunities  to  learn  in  this  way  are  not  numerous.  One 
finding  such  an  opportunity  must  expect  to  begin  as  an  apprentice  or  unskilled 
laborer.  If  diligent  and  faithful  to  his  employer's  interests,  he  will  soon  be 
advanced  to  work  involving  responsibility  and  giving  practice  in  poultry 
management.  While  thus  engaged  he  should  be  a  close  student  of  poultry 
literature,  and  should  make  the  most  of  every  opportunity  to  visit  the  plants 
and  observe  the  methods  of  other  poultrymen.  This  course  is  recommended 
even  for  those  who  have  the  capital  to  put  into  a  small  plant.  Two  years  of 
practical  work  under  a  competent  instructor  are  worth  more  to  anyone  than  a 
period  twice  as  long  passed  in  gaining  experience  independently.  A  very 
important  consequence  of  taking  this  course  is  that  the  man  with  small  capital 
risks  none  of  it,  (and  may  even  add  to  what  he  had),  before  learning  how  to 
use  it  to  best  advantage.  After  two  years  of  practical  work,  a  bright  man  of 


POULTRT-CRAFT.  13 

mature  mind  ought  to  be  in  a  position  to  know  how  to  make  best  use  of  his 
capital,  and  also  how  to  make  a  business  which  he  managed  alone  or  with  a 
little  cheap  help,  pay  expenses  almost  from  the  start.  The  course  just 
outlined  is  that  by  which  expert  knowledge  and  skill  are  obtained  at  least 
expense.  It  is  not  always  practicable.  There  are  other  ways.  A  partner- 
ship may  be  formed  with  an  expert  poultryman  who  thus  becomes  his  partner's 
instructor.  An  expert  may  be  engaged  for  a  time  as  manager  and  adviser. 
After  such  arrangements  as  these  the  next  best  plan  is  to  begin  keeping  fowls 
in  a  small  way,  increasing  the  flock  as  ability  to  manage  larger  numbers 
profitably  is  developed.  In  this  one  needs  to  be  careful  not  to  overstep  the 
limits  his  experience  places  to  profitable  work.  To  those  who  have  the 
capital  the  temptation  to  go  too  fast  is  very  strong.  Until  one  has  thoroughly 
mastered  the  elements  of  poultry  keeping,  until  he  is  "fit"  to  succeed,  he 
ought  to  proceed  as  cautiously  as  if  he  had  no  capital  but  the  profit  from  the 
flock.* 

1 1 .  Beginning  With  Small  Capital.—  Without  Capital.—  A  poultry 
business  may  be  started  on  a  very  small  capital,  practically  without  capital,  if 
one  has  other  occupation  which,  while  furnishing  the  means  of  living,  leaves 
him  time  to  properly  care  for  his  fowls.    By  careful  management  the  gradually 
increasing  income  from  the  flock  may  be  added  to  the  capital  until  the  operations 
are  large  enough  to  make  poultrying  the  principal  thing.     The  combination  of 
circumstances  favoring  a  growth  of  this  kind  is  rare.      For  those  who  think  of 
beginning  in  this  way  the  caution  :     Be  sure  of  your  ground  before  making 
any  move  involving  expense,  needs  to  be  repeated.     In  small  beginnings  of 
poultry  keeping  as  an  adjunct  to  dairying,  gardening,  etc.,  it  is  not  usually 
difficult  to  make  time  to  care  for  the  poultry,  and  the  poultry  plant  can  easily 
make  rapid  growth.     The  important  things  in  developing  a  plant  begun  in  a 
small  way,  are  : 

Keep  no  more  stock  than  can  be  given  proper  care. 
Keep  out  of  debt. 

12.  Poultry   for   Pleasure. — For   Family    Use.  —  When    fowls    are 
kept  for  a  definite  purpose,  and  that  not  the  profit  to  be  made  from  them,  it  is 
not  wrong  to  say  they  are  kept  for  pleasure.      This  statement  holds  good  even 
when  fowls  primarily  kept  for  pleasure  afford  some  profit.     Most  "  family  " 
hens  are  kept  for  pleasure,  the  pleasure  their  owners  get  from  producing  their 

*  NOTE. — Those  who,  wishing  to  learn  poultry  keeping,  do  not  meet  favorable  oppor- 
tunities, are  advised  that  it  is  in  their  power  to  materially  assist  the  movement  for  special 
instruction  in  poultry  keeping  at  the  agricultural  colleges.  This  they  can  do  by  showing 
those  in  charge  of  these  institutions  that  a  strong  demand  for  such  instruction  exists. 
At  the  Rhode  Island  State  Agricultural  College  a  course  of  study  in  poultry  culture  was 
given  in  January,  1898.  This  was  designed  as  the  initial  step  in  a  movement  to  make 
instruction  in  poultry  keeping  a  feature  of  the  work  of  that  college.  Other  states  will 
follow  the  example  of  Rhode  Island  as  fast  as  those  interested  make  it  clear  that  a  course, 
once  established,  will  be  sustained. 


14  POULTRY-CRAFT. 

own  eggs  and  poultry,  and  having  these  articles  strictly  and  reliably  fresh.  In 
many  instances  family  hens  are  from  a  dollars  and  cents  standpoint  unprofitable. 
It  costs  more  to  produce  the  eggs  and  poultry  used  than  it  would  to  buy  them  — 
a  state  of  affairs  for  which  there  is  no  good  excuse,  for  very  little  skill  in 
handling  fowls  is  required  to  make  such  small  flocks  pay  their  way.  Not 
many  families  are  so  situated  that,  wishing  to  keep  a  few  fowls,  they  are  unable 
to  do  so.  As  will  be  shown  in  succeeding  chapters,  there  are  breeds  of  fowls 
specially  suited  to  close  quarters.  A  little  plot  of  ground,  a  little  poultry 
house,  a  little  flock  of  hens,  and  a  little  love  for  domestic  animals,  make  a 
combination  which  will  give  the  poor  man  in  a  city,  at  trifling  cost,  luxuries 
for  which  his  rich  neighbor  is  glad  to  pay  liberally. 

13.  Poultry     for     Pleasure.  —  For     Exhibition. — For     Fancy. — 

Though  not  the  most  important,  this  is  the  most  prominent  feature  of  poultry 
interests.  It  is  so  intimately  associated  with  the  business  of  breeding  high 
class  stock  that  it  would  puzzle  many  breeders  to  say  whether  they  were  in 
poultry  for  fancy  or  for  business.  The  majority  of  fanciers,  however,  are  in 
"the  fancy"  for  pleasure.  Pleasure  means  to  one,  winning  at  the  exhibitions  ; 
to  another,  the  possession  of  fine  fowls ;  to  others,  the  acquisition  of  knowl- 
edge of  the  laws  of  breeding  and  the  exercise  of  skill  in  mating  for  special 
results.  Many  keep  fowls  simply  that  they  may  have  some  restful  pursuit  not 
in  line  with  their  regular  work,  to  occupy  mind  and  body  in  leisure  hours. 
Poultry  fancying  is  more  than  a  mere  amusement ;  it  is  a  useful  amusement, 
a  recreation  having  a  recognized  moral  and  educational  value  —  and,  aside 
from  the  fact  that  it  makes  "  business  "  for  many  people,  the  poultry  fancy  has 
an  industrial  influence  in  giving  the  initial  impetus  in  the  development  of 
economic  poultry  interests.  Everywhere  general  improvement  in  common 
fowls,  and  increased  profits  from  fowls,  have  followed  the  introduction  of 
"fancy "  fowls.  The  claim  of  some  fanciers  that  this  improvement  was  due 
to  the  diffusion  of  the  blood  of  their  high  class  stock,  can  be  only  partially 
admitted.  Undoubtedly  new  blood  has  done  much,  but  practical  illustrations 
of  the  advantages  of  good  care  and  systematic  breeding  for  a  definite  purpose, 
have  done  more.  The  "fancy's  "  best  contribution  to  the  growth  of  industrial 
poultry  culture  has  been  along  the  line  of  suggestive  teaching.  The  real 
usefulness  of  pleasurable  poultry  keeping  needs  to  be  better  and  more  univer- 
sally understood.  It  is  equally  desirable  that  fanciers  should  not  make  public 
extravagant  estimates  of  the  benefits  they  confer,  and  that  the  true  value  and 
dignity  of  poultry  keeping  for  pleasure  should  be  recognized  by  all  poultrymen 
and  by  the  general  public. 

14.  Women  as  Poultry  Keepers. —  The  bulk  of  the  supply  of  poultry 
products  comes  from   flocks  cared  for  principally  by  women.     On  farms  the 
care  of  the   fowls  is  usually  left  to  the  farmer's  wife  or  daughter.     In  towns 
the  absence  of  the  men  from  home  during  the  working  hours   leaves  the  care 
of  the  poultry  mostly  to  the  women,  even  when  the  men  take  an  interest  in  it. 


POULTRT-CRAFT.  15 

Whether  women  are  better  fitted  than  men  to  care  for  fowls,  is  a  question 
needing  no  discussion.  The  whole  subject  may  be  briefly  summed  up  in  the 
statement :  Some  people  (men  and  women)  make  capable  poultry  keepers, 
and  some  do  not.  There  are  quite  large  poultry  plants  conducted  by  women. 
As  a  rule,  poultry  keeping  on  a  scale  to  make  a  living  for  a  family,  is  beyond 
a  woman's  strength.  Still,  a  woman  who  can  press  some  male  member  of 
the  family  into  service  to  do  occasional  heavy  jobs  about  the  hen  house,  can 
handle  several  hundred  hens,  and  make  the  profit  from  them  a  substantial  part 
of  the  family  income.  Many  women  have  been  very  successful  as  fanciers 
and  breeders  of  high  class  stock ;  but  that  branch  of  poultry  culture  seems  to 
have  less  attraction  for  women  than  for  men.  Under  the  conditions  noted  at 
the  beginning  of  this  paragraph,  women  assume  the  care  of  poultry  through 
force  of  circumstances  and  custom.  When  they  take  up  poultry  keeping  from 
choice  it  is  usually  from  one  or  more  of  these  reasons :  that  they  may  have 
poultry  supplies  for  home  use ;  or,  profits  from  the  hens  for  pin  money ;  or, 
regular  light  outdoor  work  as  a  diversion  from  the  monotony  of  housework. 
Thus  with  them  poultry  keeping  is  really  an  adjunct  to  their  occupation  as 
housewives.  It  is  notable  that,  keeping  fowls  in  this  way,  women  are 
generally  wiser  than  men,  in  keeping  flocks  no  larger  than  they  can  care  for, 
and  in  keeping  out  of  debts  on  the  hens'  account.  To  this  extent,  if  no 
further,  women  as  a  class  are  the  better  poultry  keepers,  and  more  often  make 
small  flocks  pay. 

15.  Poultry  Keeping  for  Invalids — Invalids  are  attracted  to  poultry 
keeping  as  an  occupation,  thinking  it  one  of  the  least  laborious  of  outdoor 
callings.     The  all-important  thing  for  invalids  engaging  in  it  is  to  keep  the 
work  within  the  limits  of  their  strength.     Unless  this  is  done  the  work  will  do 
them  more  harm  than  good.     There  is  little  really  heavy  work  about  a  poultry 
yard,  but  the  work  requires   constant  attention,   is  confining,  and   to    some 
becomes  monotonous.     An  invalid  whose  sickness  is  such,  in   kind  or  degree, 
that  he  could  not  give  the  fowls  regular  attention  in  all  kinds  of  weather, 
ought  not  to  engage  in  poultry  keeping  expecting  to  make  it  profitable.     Nor 
should  one  unable  by  reason  of  physical  disability  to  make  a  living  at  another 
occupation,  hope  to  make  one  from  this.     The  work  on  a  poultry  plant  large 
enough  to  make  a  living  for  a  family  is  not  "  light"  work  in  any  other  sense 
than  that  it  does  not  require  great  muscular  exertion.     It  keeps  an  active   man 
very  busy  through  days  of  long  hours.     Invalids  engaging  in  poultry  keeping 
on   a  scale   suited  to  their  strength  may  make   something  —  some  part  of  a 
living,  from  it,  while  the  work  builds  them  up  physically,  and  can  be  gradually 
developed  into  an  extensive  business  yielding  a  living  income. 

16.  Poultry   Keeping  for  Children. —  A  child, —  especially  a   boy  — 
having  reached  such  age  that  he  can  be  trusted,  (with  a  little  oversight  from 
some  older  person) ,  to  care  for  a  flock  of  fowls,  ought  to  be  encouraged  to  take 
an  interest  in  domestic  fowls,  and,  if  circumstances  permit,  should  be  given  a 


i6 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 


few  hens.  It  is  a  well  established  fact,  that  an  interest,  as  care-taker,  in 
domestic  animals,  and  particularly  the  smaller  and  weaker  ones,  helps  to 
develop  a  humane  character.  Fowls  can  be  kept  where  other  domestic 
animals  could  not.  The  ownership  of  a  flock  of  fowls  gives  the  young 
poultryman  opportunities  to  take  some  very  practical  lessons,  but  if  the  work 
is  to  have  the  best  effect,  parents  should  take  interest  enough  in  it  and  in 
poultry  in  general  to  fit  them  to  act  as  guides  and  advisers. 


POULTRY-CRAFT.  17 


CHAPTER    II. 


Location. —  Situation. 

17.  Definitions    of   Terms. —  By   the   location    of   a    poultry  plant,   i* 
meant  its  position  with  reference  to   markets,  and  as  determined  or  affecceu 
by    the    general    climatic    conditions.       Situation    means    the    position    of    ;i 
poultry  house,  or  the   buildings  constituting   a   poultry   plant,  as   determined 
by  those  things  which  directly  affect  fowls,  or  increase  or  diminish  the   labor 
of  caring  for  them.     Every  poultry  keeper  has  to  consider  matters  relating  to 
the    availability   of    particular   sites   for    poultry    houses.     The    question    of 
location  hardly  needs  attention  from  those  not  keeping  poultry  for  profit. 

18.  Locating  for  Business. —  Poultry  Farming. —  A  good  location  is 
as  necessary  in  poultry  keeping  as  in  any  business.     A   wrong   choice   of 
location  has  caused   many  a   failure.     The  first,  and   most  important  thing 
to  consider  is  the  matter  of  markets.     This  subject  must  be  examined  from 
several  points  of  view.     One  whose  capital  is  large  enough  to  equip  a  large 
plant,  and  keep  it  running  until   it   pays  expenses,  should  decide   first  what 
branch,  or  branches,  of  the  business  are  to  be  followed,  and  make   choice  of 
a  location  accordingly.     If  market  poultrying  is  to  be  a  specialty,  he  must 
locate   within  quick   shipping  distance  of  a  large  city,  and   should   give  the 
preference  to  a  district  containing  many  towns  and  small  cities.     In  sections 
where  a  large  part  of  the  population  is  engaged  in  agriculture,  the  supply  of 
eggs   and   poultry  is,  during  the   greater  part  of  the  year,  in   excess  of  the 
demand.     As  nearly  all  of  this  supply  comes  from  small  flocks  kept  under 
such  conditions  that  the  profits  from  each  flock,  in  effect,  equal  the  proceeds 
of    the    flock,    agricultural    districts    are    usually   poor    locations    for   special 
market  poultry  farming.     It  might  be  said  that,  except  in  the   most  densely 
populated  districts,  in  proportion  as  poultry  keeping  is  made  profitable  by  the 
general    farmers    in    any  locality  it  becomes    unprofitable   to    the    specialist. 
This  has  been  well  illustrated,  within  a  few  years,  in  the  state  of  Kansas, 
where,  in  the  face  of  a  notable  increase  of  the  poultry  product  of  the  state,  it 
was  reported  that  many  of  the  large  plants  near  Kansas  City  had  gone  out  of 
business,   unable  to  continue  at  a   profit   in   competition   with    the    farmers, 
whose  output  of  eggs  and  poultry  was  year  after  year  increasing  in  quantity 
and  improving  in  quality.     The  poultry  farmer  must  have  a  nearby  market* 
where  strictly  fresh  eggs  and  fancy  dressed  poultry  will  always  command  a 
premium.     Thus  it  is  seen  that  in  this  country  the  exclusive  poultry  farm  can 
be  made  profitable  only  in  limited  areas.     To  be  as  exact  as    possible  —  it 


1 8  POUL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 

would  be  unwise  to  attempt  that  line  of  business  beyond  quick  shipping 
distance  of  a  large  city  on  the  Atlantic  or  Pacific  coast,  except  in  mining 
districts  or  near  large  health  or  pleasure  resorts.  In  all  the  large  coast  cities, 
and  in  adjacent  cities  and  towns,  the  demand  for  the  best  poultry  products  is 
large  enough  to  remove  risk  of  an  overstocked  market.  In  the  other  places 
ranked  as  good  locations  for  poultry  farming,  the  demand  is  more  limited, 
and  is  sometimes  active  but  a  short  season  each  year.  Those  considering 
such  locations  should  thoroughly  investigate  the  conditions  of  local  demand 
and  supply  before  making  a  decision. 

After  the  question  of  a  market  for  products,  comes  the  question  of  the 
market  for  the  purchase  of  supplies.  This  is  of  little  importance  in  most 
localities  favorable  to  poultry  farming.  Yet  there  are  places  where,  while 
prices  of  eggs  and  poultry  are  so  high  as  to  tempt  investment,  a  plant  would 
prove  unprofitable  because  of  the  high  prices  of  supplies  and  the  uncertainty 
of  being  able  to  procure  them  as  needed.  Before  passing  this  question  one 
should  give  it  as  much  attention  as  will  prevent  a  mistake  from  neglect  of  it. 

It  will  be  found  that  in  the  case  under  consideration  the  matter  of  climate  is 
unimportant,  because  there  is  no  place  in  the  areas  adapted  to  large  poultry 
farming  where  the  climate  is  unfavorable.  The  poultry  keeper  may  need  to 
consider  it  for  himself.  As  for  the  fowls,  he  will  find  that  they  quickly 
become  acclimated  anywhere. 

19.  Locating  for  Business. —  Breeding  High  Class  Stock. —  In  this 
case   greater    latitude    of    choice   is    possible.       It    is    desirable,    though    not 
absolutely  necessary,    that    all    conditions    should   be    favorable    to    the   best 
development  of  fowls.     It  is,  in  reality,  more  a  question  of  situation  than  of 
location.     Situation  is  of  greater  importance.     The  business  in  fine  poultry 
and  eggs  is  done  principally  through  the  postoffice  and  the  express  companies. 
Wherever  located,  a  breeder  having  good  stock  of  a  variety  in  demand,  and 
properly  advertising  it,  will  not  often  find  his  location  a  handicap.     It  has 
been,  and  still  is,  true  that  in  some  sections  high  class  poultry  sells  more  freely 
than  elsewhere.      The  interest  in  thoroughbred  fowls  spreads  so  rapidly  that 
communities  which  a  few  years  ago  bought  little  high  priced  stock,  now  buy 
a   great    deal.     Wherever  anyone    undertakes  the  breeding  of  thoroughbred 
stock,  whether  for    market  or  fancy,  the   interest  awakened  by  his  venture 
gradually  creates  a  demand.     As  it  takes  some  time  to  establish  a  trade  in  this 
line,  the  beginner  being  always  at  a  great  disadvantage  in  competition  with 
breeders  of  established  reputation,  it  is  often  a  good  move  on  his  part  to  locate 
where  he  will  for  a  few  years  have  little  competition  for  the   local  trade, 
which,  though  small,  must  at  first  be  his  principal  dependence. 

20.  Location. — The  Combination  of  Market  and  Fancy  Poultry.— 

These  two  branches  have  so  far  been  treated  separately.  In  actual  practice 
they  are  oftenest  combined.  Many  poultry  farmers  use  thoroughbred  stock 


POULTRT-CRAFT.  19 

exclusively.  Some  have  quite  a  large  trade  in  the  best  grades  of  their  stock, 
sold  for  breeding  purposes  at  several  times  the  prices  for  market  poultry.  A 
few  whose  principal  interest  is  in  practical  poultry  are  successful  exhibitors 
of  standard  fowls,  arid  sell  exhibition  birds  and  birds  for  breeding  exhibition 
stock  at  high  prices.  On  the  other  hand,  every  extensive  breeder  of  high 
class  stock  has  to  dispose  of  a  considerable  part  of  what  he  produces  at  market 
prices.  As  long  as  this  can  be  regarded  as  a  by-product,  he  need  not  consider 
the  market  for  it  when  selecting  a  location ;  but,  if  he  must  depend  on  it  for 
a  considerable  part  of  his  income,  it  may  be  best  to  give  market  advantages 
great  weight  when  deciding  where  to  locate.  The  combination  of  exhibition, 
breeding  and  market  stock,  is  generally  the  best  for  those  in  the  business  for 
profit ;  especially  is  this  true  in  the  case  of  a  plant  located  outside  of  the  areas 
adapted  to  exclusive  market  poultrying.  Such  a  combination  can  be  made 
profitable  near  almost  any  large  town. 

21.  Buying  Land  for  a    Poultry  Plant. —  The   plant   should   not   be 
built  on  rented  ground.     The  rent  adds  to  current  expenses.     Removal  means 
either  the  sacrifice  of  the  greater  part  of  the  value  of  the  improvements,  or 
expense,  and  damage  to  buildings  in  moving.     The  amount  of  land  needed 
for  the  plant  depends  as  much  on  the  system  of  housing  used  as  on  the  number 
of  fowls  kept.     A  large  stock  kept  on  the  colony  plan  will  occupy  a  good 
sized  farm.     On  most  of  the  large  plants  the  fowls  are  yarded,  being  housed 
in  long  sectional  houses.     This  system  brings  a  large  stock  upon  a  small  area. 
From  five  to  ten  acres  is  ordinarily  enough  land  for  a  poultryman.     As  far  as 
suitability  for  poultry  keeping  goes,  the  soil  need  not  be  fertile.     Often  a  tract 
admirably  adapted  to  poultry  keeping  is  quite  worthless  for  other  purposes. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  not  good  policy  to  buy  land  that  cannot  be  improved  to 
make  comfortable,  pleasant  home  surroundings,  for  the  poultryman's  home 
and  place  of  business  are  necessarily  together.      Another  thing  to  consider  in 
buying    is,  that    poultry    keeping   and    fruit  raising  or  gardening    are   often 
profitably  combined,  and  it  is  worth  while  to  take  account  of  the  possibility 
of  its  proving  advisable  at  some  future  time  to  make  such  a   combination. 
Buying  a  place  on  time,  is  as  bad  a  mistake  as  renting  land.     The  beginner's 
profits  cannot  stand  such  drains. 

22.  Adapting  Business  to  Location. —  For  nearly  all  who  begin  in  a 
small  way  with  the  expectation  of  making  a  living,  ultimately,  from  poultry 
—  and    for,    perhaps,    all   who    make    poultrying    an    adjunct    of    another 
occupation,   the   question  of  location   is,   from    the    first,  a  closed    question. 
They  already  have  a  site  which  they  think  might  be  used  to   advantage  for 
poultry.     The  statements  in  the   preceding  paragraphs  will   suggest  to  such 
persons  the  branches  of  the  business  best  suited  to  their  circumstances.     Thus, 
on  a  site  suitable  for  poultry  within  one  of  the  areas  where  exclusive  market 
poultry  keeping  can   always  be  made  profitable,  eggs  and  poultry  will  from 


20  POULTRY-CRAFT. 

the  start  furnish  the  quickest,  surest,  most  evenly  distributed  returns ;  while  in 
other  localities  it  will  be  better  to  make  such  a  combination  as  the  demands 
of  the  market,  the  amount  of  capital  on  hand,  and  the  skill  of  the  poultryman 
allow.  At  least  a  slight  general  acquaintance  with  the  whole  subject  of 
poultry  keeping  is  necessary  before  one  can  decide  what  to  do  and  what  not 
to  do  in  any  given  case. 

23.  Situation. —  General  Remarks. —  Though  certain  surroundings  are 
more  agreeable  to  fowls  than  others,  and  under  favoring  conditions  they  are 
handled  at  least  cost  for  food  and  labor,  there  is  nothing  in  the  nature  of 
domestic  fowls  to  prevent  their  being  thrifty  and  profitable  in  circumstances 
quite  the  reverse  of  those  most  agreeable.  Indeed,  it  is  coming  to  be  well 
understood  that,  within  reasonable  limits,  restraints  on  the  natural  tendencies 
of  fowls  are  beneficial.  Like  all  domestic  animals,  they  can  be  accustomed 
to  great  changes  of  habit,  as  well  as  of  climate.  The  breeds  of  fowls  differ 
somewhat  in  adaptability  to  artificial  conditions ;  but  as  a  rule  the  welfare  of 
the  fowls  depends  more  on  the  poultryman  than  on  the  nature  of  fowls  or 
of  their  surroundings.  Farms  and  large  village  lots  furnish  the  best 
opportunities  for  poultry  keeping.  Fowls  can  be  kept  and,  even,  a  few 
thrifty  young  reared  on  narrow  city  lots — sometimes  in  very  close  quarters. 
It  has  often  been  said  that  fowls  can  be  kept  wherever  human  beings  can  live. 
While  not  literally  true,  this  statement  is  not  far  wrong  —  if  its  application  is 
limited  to  fowls  kept  for  pleasure.  Whether  fowls  are  kept  for  pleasure  or 
profit,  successful  management  consists  in  rightly  balancing  natural  and 
artificial  conditions,  providing  by  art  those  things  in  which  the  situation  is 
deficient,  or  when  that  is  not  possible,  devising  ways  of  compensating  for 
nature's  defects.  Just  here  is  where  it  is  found  that  ways  of  caring  for  fowls 
for  best  results  differ  in  different  localities  and  situations.  The  needs  of 
fowls  do  not  vary ;  the  resources  of  places  do.  In  different  places  poultry 
keepers  have  to  do  different  things  to  supply  the  same  needs.  This  is  all 
there  is  in  the  oft-repeated  assertions  that  fowls  cannot  be  handled  in  the  west 
as  in  the  east,  in  the  south  as  in  the  north,  in  mountain  countries  as  at  the 
sea  level.  The  poultryman  in  unusual  circumstances  must  study  his  sur- 
roundings and  their  effects  upon  fowls,  and  vary  treatment  as  he  finds  nature 
doing  more  or  less  in  any  direction;  and  he  ought  always  to  follow  the 
general  rules  for  caring  for  fowls  under  ordinary  conditions,  until  by  careful 
study  of  his  situation  he  sees  reason  for  making  change  in  treatment  or  diet. 
He  should  not  do  extraordinary  things  without  knowing  'why  he  does  them. 
Unusual  circumstances  demand  thoughtfulness  and  prudence,  not  eccentricity. 
The  poultry  keeper  for  pleasure  can  go  as  far  as  he  likes  in  making  good  the 
natural  defects  of  a  site.  One  in  business  for  profit  needs  the  advantage  of 
a  situation  with  few  defects.  It  is  folly  to  undertake  keeping  fowls  for  profit 
on  a  site  where  the  " outs'*  are  so  many  that  the  making  of  a  living  is 
rendered  unnecessarily  laborious. 


POULTRr-CRAFT.  31 

24.  Situation. — Soils. —  A  sandy  soil  suits  poultry  best.    A  wet,  heavy, 
clay  soil  is  most  unsuitable.     A  soil  containing  much  alkali  is  to  be  avoided 
because  of  its  bad  effect  on  the  skin  and  plumage.     A  sandy  site  is,  in  general, 
well  drained,  and  is  easily  kept  clean.       Droppings  falling  on  a  porous  sandy 
soil  are  at  once  deodorized  by  absorption  of  their  liquids,  the  remaining  solids 
are  disintegrated  and  carried  below  the  surface  by  rains ;  falling  on  clayey  soil 
they  form  a  crust  on  the  surface,  making  it  very  foul.     Between  light  sandy 
and    heavy    clay    soils   is  a  wide  range  and  many  kinds  of  soil,  varying  in 
suitability   for   poultry  keeping  as  they  approach  to   or  depart   from    these 
extremes.       Fowls    are  oftenest   kept    on    medium    soils,    these   being   most 
common.     Such  soils  are  easily  purified  by  occasionally  spading  or  plowing 
the  yards.     Sometimes  the  same  end  is  gained,  and  a  regular  supply  of  green 
food  furnished  the  fowls,  by  an  arrangement  of  alternate  yards,  which  makes 
it  possible  to  grow  a  green  crop  in  one  yard  while  the  fowls  are  confined  to 
the  other.     When  fowls  are  kept  on  rather  heavy  soil,  the  surface  should  be 
graded  to  secure  complete  surface  drainage,  and  as  much  as  possible  of  the 
runs  should  be  in  permanent  grass.      It  is  advised  to  remove  the  earth  in  the 
house  floors,  replacing  it  with  a  few  inches  of  sand  or  sandy  loam  over  a  bed 
of  gravel.      Made  ground  composed  largely  of  rubbish,  is  most  unsuitable  for 
poultry.     In  hot  damp  weather  the  decomposed  matter  breeds  disease  germs, 
which  cause  epidemics.     This   condition  persists  for  a    long  time  after  the 
making  of  the  ground,  and  accounts  for  many  mysterious  outbreaks  of  disease. 
Ground  of  this  kind  is  common  in  large  cities  and  their  suburbs.     Poultry 
keepers  should  avoid  it  on  their  own  account,  and  because  of  its  possible  effect 
on  fowls. 

25.  Situation. —  Drainage. —  The  site  of  a  poultry  house  or  plant  should 
always  be  well    drained.     Water  standing  at  the  surface  attracts  filth.     On 
ill-drained  land  one  has  bad  footing  while  doing  his  work,  and  the  work  is 
consequently  much  harder.    These  are  the  things  which  first  become  apparent 
in  a  poorly  drained  place.     More  important  than  either,  is  the  fact  that  the 
poultry  house  cannot  be  kept  as  dry  as  it  should ;  any  degree  of  continuous 
dampness    is   objectionable.      A  high  site,  hill,  knoll,    or    slope    is    usually 
recommended,  but  ground  level  or  in  a  depression  is  not  altogether  objection- 
able if  well  drained. 

26.  Situation. —  Exposure. —  Shelter. —  Poultrymen  prefer  a  site  on  a 
gentle  slope  facing  south   or  southeast.     It   is   desirable   that   the   buildings 
receive  the  sunlight  as  long  as  possible  on  winter  days,  and  be  sheltered  from 
cold  winds.     The  lack  of  such  natural  advantage  in  a  situation  may  be  made 
good,  as  far  as  shelter  from  wind  goes,  by  growing  evergreens  where  they 
will  serve  as  wind-breaks.     A  house  placed  where  it  does  not  get  the  sunlight 
is  unfit  for  fowls.     If  it  gets  the  sun  for  only  a  few  hours  daily  it  may  be 
used.     In  such  case  it  is  most  satisfactory  to  keep  fowls  only  for  family  use, 


22 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


replacing  the  stock  each  year.  Stock  birds  soon  degenerate  away  from  the 
sun,  and  young  stock  makes  but  sickly  growth  without  sunlight.  In  placing 
poultry  buildings  the  most  should  be  made  of  every  natural  advantage  of  the 
situation.  Convenience  to  his  house  and  for  doing  the  work  are  points  for 
the  poultryman  to  consider,  but  ought  never  to  be  allowed  to  influence  him 
when  they  conflict  with  matters  essential  to  the  welfare  of  the  flock. 


FO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT.  23 


CHAPTER     III. 


Poultry  Houses  and  Yards. 

27.  General  Remarks. —  It  is  important  that  fowls  be  properly  housed. 
This  can  be  accomplished  without  using  elaborate  or  expensive  buildings.  A 
poultry  house  should  be  free  from  drafts,  so  constructed  that  the  inner 
temperature  will  vary  slowly  with  fluctuations  in  the  weather.  The  windows 
should  be  so  placed  that  the  sun  will  shine  into  the  house  for  a  few  hours 
daily, —  in  winter,  the  longer  the  better.  These  things,  and  a  suitable 
situation,  are  essential.  The  permanent  lack  of  any  one  of  them  invariably 
affects  the  health  of  the  fowls,  sooner  or  later  bringing  disease  and  loss.  A 
house  furnishing  the  conditions  essential  to  the  welfare  of  its  tenants  may  be 
unsightly  to  the  eye,  inconvenient  for  the  attendant,  yet  cannot  be  regarded  as 
unsuitable  for  fowls.  A  person  is  sometimes  so  situated  that  if  he  would  have 
a  few  fowls  he  must  make  shift  to  keep  them  in  quarters  not  specially  suited  to 
poultry  keeping.  If  the  essential  conditions  specified  can  be  secured,  the 
fowls  can  do  very  well.  If  the  conditions  named  cannot  be  secured,  it  is  better 
not  to  try  to  keep  poultry.  The  inconveniences  incident  to  caring  for  fowls  in 
makeshift  and  poorly  planned  houses  are  matters  of  small  moment  to  the 
amateur  who  gives  his  fowls  but  little  of  his  time.  To  one  who  keeps  fowls 
on  an  increasing  scale  such  inconveniences  soon  become  costly  annoyances, 
and  the  buildings,  often,  must  be  completely  remodeled.  It  is  therefore 
always  best  for  a  poultryman  to  consider  carefully  before  beginning  to  build 
or  to  make  alterations ;  and  a  beginner,  particularly,  should  make  himself  so 
familiar  with  the  principles  of  poultry  house  construction,  the  different  styles 
of  houses,  the  methods  of  platting  poultry  plants,  that  whatever  the  scale  of  his 
future  operations,  each  building  erected  may  be  built  to  stand  many  years 
without  alteration  and  without  other  repairs  than  those  made  necessary  by  the 
ordinary  wear  and  tear  of  weather  and  daily  use.  Nearly  all  the  designs  given 
in  this  chapter  are  modeled  after,  or  adapted  from,  plans  used  and  approved 
by  practical  poultrymen.  (The  exceptions  merit  attention,  embodying  as  they 
do  some  ideas  approved  by  the  experience  of  poultry  keepers,  though  not  yet 
tested).  The  buildings  described  have  been  selected  as  furnishing  typical 
examples  of  different  styles  of  poultry  houses.  As  a  comparison  of  the  plans 
will  show,  many  of  the  details  may  be  applied  in  any  or  all  the  various  styles 
of  houses.  The  greatest  possible  variety  has  been  introduced  in  the  minor 
details  of  the  drawings,  to  avoid  an  unnecessary  multiplication  of  illustrations. 
Having  selected  the  style  of  house  which  suits  him  best,  anyone  intelligent 
enough  to  build  a  poultry  house  can  adapt  to  it  such  minor  features  of  other 


24 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


designs  as  his  situation  and  his  means  demand.  All  the  drawings  show  neat 
buildings,  devoid  of  ornament.  In  nearly  all  the  plans  given  it  is  designed 
that  the  ground  floor  shall  be  of  earth,  which  is  by  all  odds  the  best  floor 
material,  and  should  be  used  whenever  that  is  practicable. 

28.     A  Cheap  House  for  a  Town  Lot. —  In  Fig.    i   is  shown  a  simple 


n 


Fig.   1.     A  Cheap  Small  Poultry  House.    A. — perspective.    B. — ground  plan. 

design  for  a  cheap  city  poultry  house,  10  ft.  square  on  the  ground;  height 
in  front  8  ft.,  in  rear  5  ft.  Such  a  house  will  accommodate  from  ten  to 
twenty  hens,  according  to  breed,  amount  of  yard  room,  etc.  The  only  openings 
are  the  door  in  the  east  side,  the  window  in  the  south  front,  and  the  small  door 
giving  access  to  the  yard ;  the  front  and  east  side  to  be  boarded  up  and  down 
with  boards  i  ft.  wide,  dressed  on  one  side ;  the  joints  between  the  boards  to 
be  covered  with  battens.  The  west  and  north  sides  and  the  roof  are  of  boards 
.covered  with  building  paper. 

Materials.* 

The  frame  of  the  building  requires  nine  pieces  of  2  x  3  scantling,  10  ft. 
long;  four  of  these  are  for  the  sills,  two  for  plates,  (front  and  rear),  two  to  go 
paralled  to  sills  and  halfway  up  north  and  west  sides,  and  one  from  which  to 
cut  the  short  horizontal  pieces  for  middle  of  front  and  top  of  door  opening ; 
three  pieces  2x3  scantling  16  ft.  long,  from  which  to  cut  four  studs,  each  8 
ft.  long  for  front  corners  and  sides  of  window  opening,  two  5  ft.  studs  for 
rear  corners,  and  two  3  ft.  pieces  for  top  and  bottom  of  window  opening ;  one 
piece  of  2  x  3  scantling  14  ft.  long  from  which  to  cut  one  7  ft.  stud  to  go  at 
north  side  of  door  opening,  and  the  horizontal,  piece  for  the  middle  of  the  east 

*NOTE. —  To  give  full  lists  of  materials  and  suggestions  in  regard  to  using  them  for 
all  the  plans  given  in  this  chapter,  is  out  of  the  question.  Lists  of  materials  are, 
however,  given  in  a  number  of  cases.  In  connection  with  this  simple  plan  full  instruc- 
tions are  given  as  to  lumber  used,  what  to  order,  and  how  to  cut  it  to  advantage. 
Occasional  suggestions  will  be  given  as  seems  expedient  with  other  plans.  In  all  designs 
the  construction  is  very  simple ;  and  having  learned  how  to  proceed  in  one  case,  the 
reader  can  easily  apply  his  knowledge  to  any  other. 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


side ;  three  pieces  2x4  scantling  22  ft.  long,  from  which  to  cut  six  rafters  each 
about  10  ft.  6  in.  long.  (If  it  is  desired  they  may  be  n  ft.  long,  and  allowed  to 
project  over  front  and  rear  walls.  Sometimes  dimension  lumber  over  20  ft.  in 
length  costs  more  per  1000  ft.  than  when  in  lengths  of  20  ft.  or  less.  When 
that  is  the  case  it  is  as  well  to  use  1 2  ft.  stuff  for  the  rafters ;  or,  for  strictest 
economy  in  construction,  to  make  the  building  six  inches  narrower  than  in  the 
plan,  and  use  10  ft.  stuff  for  rafters).  Boards  16  ft.  long  should  be  used  for  the 
front  and  east  side.  For  the  long  boards  on  the  front  16  ft.  boards  cut  in  two 
are  used  without  waste.  A  little  ingenuity  in  cutting  will  leave  very  little 
waste  in  using  16  ft.  stuff  for  the  east  side.  Ten  16  ft.  boards  i  ft.  wide  will  be 
needed.  The  boards  for  the  back,  west  side  and  roof,  which  are  to  be  covered 
with  building  paper,  may  be  either  rough  lumber  or  surfaced  on  one  side. 
They  need  not  be  of  equal  widths,  though  of  course  there  is  no  objection  to 
that,  except  on  the  score  of  cost,  selected  widths  often  costing  more.  For  the 
west  side  boards  16  ft.  long  should  be  used,  and  for  the  roof  and  rear  wall 
boards  10  ft.  long.  Three  boards  of  matched  flooring,  each  12  ft.  long,  will  be 
needed  for  the  door.  There  is  needed  then  : 


Dimension  lumber : — 

9  pieces  2  x  3  in.  scantling  10  ft.  long; 
i  piece    2  x  3  in.  scantling  14  ft.  long; 


3  pieces  2  x  3  in.  scantling  16  ft.  long; 

3  pieces  2  x  4  in.  scantling  22  ft.  long: 

109  sq.  ft. 
Rough  sheathing: — 

160  sq.  ft.  boards  10  ft.  long;  70  sq.  ft.  boards  10  ft.  long      ....        230  sq.  ft. 

Ten  12  in.  boards  16  ftt  long        160  sq.  ft. 

Three  6  in.  matched  boards  12  ft.  long 18  sq.  ft. 

Battens,  2  in.  wide,  aggregating  in  length 160  ft. 

Roofing  paper,  to  cover 240  sq.  ft. 

Two  6-light  sash,  10  x  14  glass  ;  one  lock  ;  one  pair  hinges  ;  nails,  screws,  etc. 

This  estimate  allows  for  lumber  to  be  used  in  casing  window  and  door, 
strips  to  finish  at  top  and  bottom  of  front  and  east  side,  stuff  for  nests,  drop 
boards,  roost  and  dust  box.  Prices  of  material  vary  in  different  places.  Any 
lumber  dealer  can  give  exact  cost  of  such  a  bill  of  goods  in  a  few  minutes. 


29.     Single    House   with    Scratching   Shed    Underneath.  —  Fig.    2 

shows  a  style  of  single  house  very  often  used  when 
the  site  is  so  far  from  level  that  a  space  must  be 
left  below  the  floor,  or  a  considerable  fill  made. 
The  space  below  the  floor  of  the  house  is  used  as  a 
scratching  shed,  the  height  of  the  shed  being  pro- 
portionate to  the  slope  of  the  hill  and  the  width 
of  the  house.  The  higher  sheds  are  usually  so 
arranged  that  in  rough  weather  the  front  can  be 
at  least  partially  closed.  The  low  sheds  are  usually  left  unprotected,  but 
it  is  a  good  idea  to  have  movable  fronts  to  use  to  exclude  snow  in  blizzard 
weather.  The  plan  is  sometimes  used  with  long  sectional  houses. 


Pig.  2.      House  with  Scratching 
Shed  underneath. 


26  PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 

30.  Other    Houses    for    Single    Flocks.  —  All    the    poultry   houses 
described  in  the  next  paragraph  can,  of  course,  be   used  for  single   flocks   in 
yards.     Single  sections  of  most  of  the  continuous  houses  described  are  used 
for  one-pen  houses,  and  these  should  be  examined  in  connection  with  the 
plans  just  given. 

31.  The  Colony  Plan. —  The  objectionable  features  of  this  plan  are  such 
that  it  is  not  often  deliberately  adopted  for  a  large  poultry  plant.    Of  late,  some 
of  those  who  have  used  the  system  seem  inclined  to  discard  it.      The  strong- 
hold of  the  system  of  colonizing  fowls  in  small  families  with  free  range  ha& 
been  the  belief  that  fowls  could  be  made  more  profitable  on  free  range  than  in 
yards ;  that  they  would  be  healthier,  more  vigorous,   more  prolific,  and  the 
eggs  would  be  more  fertile.     As  this  belief  breaks  down,  people  become  more 
and  more  unwilling  to  put  up  with  the  defects  of  the  system  for  the  sake  of  its 
advantages,  real  and  supposed.     Briefly  stated,  the  principal  advantages  of  the 
colony  plan  are : 

Cheaper  houses. 

No  expense  for  fences. 

The  fowls  can  pick  a  part  of  their  living. 

The  scrupulous  attention  to  cleanliness  and  the  care  to  provide  regular 
supplies  of  animal  and  vegetable  foods,  which  are  a  part  of  the  routine  work 
of  most  poultry  farms,  can  be  relaxed  on  a  farm  run  on  the  colony  plan. 

The  marked  disadvantages  of  the  system  are  : 

Increased  cost  of  labor  in  caring  for  fowls.  Taking  one  thing  and  one 
season  with  another,  the  cost  of  labor  is  greater,  notwithstanding  the  slight 
saving  on  some  items  of  labor. 

Greater  difficulty  in  maintaining  strict  regularity  in  feeding.  In  bad  weather, 
just  when  the  most  careful  attention  should  be  given  them,  the  hens  are  often 
unavoidably  neglected. 

The  difficulty  of  controlling  disease  in  flocks  allowed  to  mingle. 

The  modification  of  the  colony  plan,  which  places  detached  houses  in  large 
yards,  loses  the  advantage  of  no  cost  for  fences.  Cost  of  fencing  is  so  much 
increased  that  rarely  is  any  saving  effected  in  the  total  cost  of  housing  and 
yarding.  In  snowy,  stormy  weather  the  difficulty  of  caring  for  the  fowls  is 
increased,  rather  than  diminished. 

The  colony  plan,  with  or  without  yards,  loses  its  most  serious  objections  in 
a  mild  climate.  There  are  many  special  cases  where  it  might  be  preferable  to 
any  other,  particularly  when  poultry  keeping  is  a  side  issue  on  a  fruit  or 
general  farm,  the  hens  being  kept  as  insect  exterminators,  gleaners  and 
scavengers.  For  the  ordinary  farm  stock  of  poultry  the  colony  plan,  on  a 
small  scale,  is  often  the  best.  The  illustrations  given  show  models  of  cheap 
and  serviceable  buildings  in  use  on  some  of  the  farms  run  on  the  colony  plan. 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


The  tent  shaped  house,  Fig.  3,  is  8 
ft.  square  on  the  ground,  and  8  ft.  to  the 
apex.  The  floor  is  of  plank,  and  the 
front  open  slat  work.  Houses  like  this 
are  used  upon  a  large  New  Hampshire 
farm.  The  capacity  of  the  house  is  12 
hens  ;  the  cost,  (in  N.  H.),  about  $8. 

Fig.  4  shows  a  house  used  on  a  Rhode 
Island    farm.     Ground    dimensions    are 
8  x  1 2  f t. ;  height,  to  the  eaves,  6  ft. ; 
to  the  apex,  8  ft.    The  walls  are  of  rough 
boards,  battened.     The  roof  is  shingled. 
Pig.  3.   A  Tent  Shaped  Colony  Plan  House.         About  twenty  hens  can  be  housed  in  it. 
In   Fig.  5  is  shown  a  house  of  brick,  or  stone,  with  roof  of  boards  covered 
with  tarred  felt.     The  drawing  was  made  from  a  building  on  a  Rhode  Island 
farm.     Each  house  of  this  style  was  n  x  14  ft.  on  the  ground;  7  ft.  high  in 

front,  and  4  ft.  high  in  rear.     In  each 
twenty  hens  were  kept ;  but  a  house  of 


Pig.  4.     Colony  Plan  House. 


Pig.  5.    Brick  House  —  for  the  Colony  Plan. 


*«••**•»•««  «.«^. 


this  size  would  not  be  overcrowded  with  twenty-five  to  thirty  hens  of  the  small 
or  medium  sized  breeds.  If  new  material  must  be  bought  and  building  labor 
hired,  it  does  not  generally  pay  to  use  brick  and  stone.  If  such  materials  are 
at  hand,  or  can  be  procured  at  trifling  cost,  and  the  building  done  by  the  poul- 
tryman,  there  is  no  economy  in  rejecting  them.  Facility 
in  making  use  of  available  building  materials,  foods,  etc., 
is  one  test  of  a  man's  ability  as  a  poultryman.  Provided 
the  house  conforms  to  the  essentials  stated  in  ^[27,  the 
widest  latitude  may  be  taken  in  using  materials.  Good 
houses  have  been  log 
houses,  grout  houses, 
adobe  houses.  Poul- 
try houses  have  been 
made  with  walls  and 
roofs  of  old  railroad 
ties,  the  crevices  being 
filled  with  mud,  and 

Pig.  6.     A  Colony  Plan  Scratching  Shed  House. 


Aw,  no 

*'** 


:xn__jpir: 


28 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 


the  roofs  covered  several  inches  deep  with  earth.  Fig.  6  shows  a  single  house 
often  used  with  the  colony  plan.  It  is  usually  built  without  windows,  the 
south  front  of  the  shed  being  always  open,  and  the  door  between  shed  and 
roosting  room  being  closed  only  in  severe  weather.  Sometimes  a  slat  door 
is  hung  inside  to  admit  air,  while  keeping  out  night  prowlers.  The  diagram 
is  for  a  house  8  x  16  ft.  on  the  ground,  the  floor  space  equally  divided  for  the 
close  room  and  the  open  shed. 


r 

r 
P 

-  -  p  ~r 

j- 

j;                                   T 

t 

;    -5 

Fig.  7.    Two-Pen  Poultry  House. 
P  P,  droppings  boards  ;  r  r,  roosts:  NN,  nesls; 
DD,  large  doors;  dd,  small  doors;  ww,  win- 
dows; W,  water  dish;  gg,  grit  box;  s,  screen 
door;  F  F,  fences. 

32.  A  Two-Pen  Poultry 
House.  —  Fig.  7  shows  a  small 
double  poultry  house,  with 
yards  at  sides  and  to  the  rear 
of  the  house.  The  ground 
dimensions  are  10  x  16  ft.  ;  height,  at  eaves,  6  ft.  ;  at  apex,  8  ft.  It  has 
shingled  roof.  The  sides  are  of  rough  lumber  covered  with  lapped  siding. 


Materials. 

Dimension  lumber  :  — 

2  pieces  2x4  scantling  16  ft.  long  —  for  sills; 

2  pieces  2x4  scantling  10  ft.  long  —  for  sills; 

3  pieces  2x3  scantling  16  ft.  long  —  for  plates  and  studs; 

14  pieces  2x3  scantling  12  ft.  long  —  for  rafters,  studs,  etc.; 
i  piece  2x3  scantling  14  ft.  long  —  for  studs: 

163  sq.  ft. 
16  ft.  sheathing      ...................     .     500  sq.  ft. 

Siding      ....................     ...     220  sq.  ft. 

6  12-inch  boards  16  ft.  long,  dressed  on  one  side,  for  cornice,  casings,  etc. 
2  thousand  shingles;  50  laths;  2  4-panel  doors;  2  screen  doors;  4  sash  6-light  10  x  14 
glass  ;  building  paper  to  cover  500  sq.  ft.  ;  2  pr.  loose  pin  butt  hinges  ;  i  pr.  6  in.  T  hinges  ; 
i  lock;   i  bolt;  nails,  screws,  etc. 


From  this  bill  of  lumber  enough  will  be  left,  after  finishing  exterior,  for 
inside  partition,  roosts,  droppings  boards,  nests,  dust  boxes. 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 


39 


33.  Continuous,  or  Sectional    Poultry    Houses.  —  Intensive  poultry 
keeping,    many  fowls   on  a   small   plot  of  ground,    is  the   practice  of   most 
progressive    poultrymen.     The    colony    plan    reproduces    as    many    times  as 
desired  the  conditions  of  the  ordinary  farm  flock.     A  system  of  continuous  or 
sectional  houses  multiplies  as  often  as  desired  the  conditions  of  the  best  kept 
flocks.     The  colony  plan  allows  but  eighty  to  one  hundred  hens  to  the  acre. 
The    continuous  house   system  with  suitable  yards,   allows   four  hundred   to 
five  hundred  hens  to  the  acre.     The  failures  of  the  first  attempts  at  intensive 
poultry  keeping  were  due  to  the  failures  of  the  poultrymen  to  provide  meat 
food,   vegetable  food,   grit,   exercise.     With    these    errors    corrected,    results 
soon    showed    the  superiority   of    the  intensive  system  for  those   who  make 
poultry  keeping  a  business.     The  fact  that  it  is  the  system  almost  universally 
adopted,  makes  superfluous  a  recital  of  its  advantages  further  than  intimated 
in  describing  the  colony  plan,   and  to  be  mentioned  in   the    description    of 
different  styles  of  continuous  houses. 

34.  Continuous  House  with   Connecting  Pens. — In  a  short  house, 
or  one  containing  a  few  long  compartments,   passage  through  the  house  is 


q 

O;D 
>^»,»..,, 

D;D 

UJ,M»i,., 

a  in 

o\ 

Fig.  8.  Cheap  Four  Pen  House. 
Dotted  lines  in  the  perspective  indicate 
positions  of  studs  and  rafters;  in  the 
ground  plan,  positions  of  roosts. 

usually  from  pen  to  pen. 
Fig.  8  illustrates  such 
a  house,  containing  four 
pens  each  12  ft.  square.  It  is  a  substantial,  low  cost  house,  the  construction 
being  the  simplest  consistent  with  strength  and  durability.  It  is  built  without 
sills  or  plates.  The  studs  are  spiked  to  short  cedar  posts,  placed  4  ft.  apart, 
set  1 8  in.  into  the  ground,  and  projecting  the  same  distance  above  ground ;  or 
the  studs  are  used  as  posts,  the  end  which  goes  into  the  ground  having  been 
coated  with  tar.  The  lower  ends  of  the  rafters  rest  upon  the  tops  of  these 
stud-posts;  the  upper  ends  are  joined  directly,  being  secured  with  spikes 

driven  through  each  into  the  other,  and  all  rafters 
except  those  at  the  ends  being  braced  as  shown  in 
Fig.  9.  The  dotted  lines  in  the  drawing  indicate 
the  positions  of  studs  and  rafters.  Each  window 
Flg'  9*  opening  adjoins  a  stud  on  one  side ;  on  the  other 

side  a  short  stud,  simply  nailed  to  the  sheathing,  is  placed.     This  short  stud 
extends  6  to  8  in.  above  the  upper  edge,  and  a  like  distance  below  the  lower 


3° 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


edge  of  the  window  opening.  No  scantling  are  used  above  or  below  tht 
opening.  The  sill  of  the  window  is  a  piece  of  6-in.  board,  projecting  an  inch 
beyond  the  outer  surface  of  the  sheathing,  and  inclined  just  enough  to  prevent 
rain  beating  under  the  sash.  The  distance  between  studs  should  equal  the 
width  of  the  sash ;  the  height  of  the  opening  should  equal  the  length  of  the 
sash.  The  ends  of  the  sheathing  boards,  projecting  one-half  inch  or  more 
beyond  the  studs,  make  the  outside  side  sash  stops.  When  the  sill  has  been 
placed  as  described,  and  the  sash  put  in,  the  upper  rail  of  the  sash  will  over- 
lap the  edge  of  the  opening.  For  inside  sash  stops,  strips  of  lath  may  be 
used  at  sides  and  on  sill,  and  a  stop  about  one  inch  square  nailed  to  the  top 
of  the  sash  and  to  the  sheathing.  A  window  put  in  in  this  way  is  wind  and 
water  tight.  The  removal  of  the  sash  to  fit  the  house  for  warm  weather,  and 
its  replacement  on  the  approach  of  winter,  are  the  work  of  but  an  instant. 
The  studs  should  be  set  plumb,  and  well  braced,  and  the  rafters  trued  and 
firmly  braced  until  the  sheathing  is  nailed  on,  and  the  boards  of  the  partitions 
in  place.  Sheathing  12  or  16  ft.  long  should  be  used,  and  in  putting  it  on 
joints  should  be  broken  about  every  two  feet.  Such  a  house  can  be  either 
shingled  or  covered  with  a  prepared  paper.  If  not  shingled,  it  can  be  easily 
taken  down,  moved,  and  set  up  again  as  good  as  at  first,  except  that  a  part  of 
the  covering  material  might  have  to  be  renewed. 

35.     Continuous  House  for  a  Farm  Flock. — The  style  of  house  just 
described  is  well  suited  for  a  farm  stock  when  it  is  desirable  to  keep  the  fowls 

in  several  flocks,  and  yet  have  them  housed 
together.  The  plat  shown  in  Fig.  10  pro- 
vides for  a  house  12  x  72  ft.,  with  a  pen  12 
x  24  ft.  in  each  end,  and  two  pens  each  1 2 
x  12  ft.  in  the  middle.  In  the  supposed  case 
for  which  this  plat  is  made,  the  hens  from  the 
east  pen  have  the  run  of  a  field,  meadow, 
or  pasture  lot ;  those  from  the  west  pen  run 
into  an  orchard ;  while  the  middle  pens,  each 
connected  with  a  yard  36  x  60  ft.,  can  be 
used  in  season  for  breeding  pens,  for  fat- 
tening pens,  or  simply  in  connection  with 
adjacent  end  pens,  giving  the  two  large 
flocks  additional  house  room.  If  the  field 
fence  is  made  '  *  hen-tight "  for  ten  rods  each 


Fig .   10.     Four  Pen  House  for  a  Farm  Flock. 

way  from  the  house,  there  will  be  little  danger  of  the  flocks  mingling. 


36.  Continuous  House  with  a  Walk.  —  In  Fig.  1 1  is  shown  the  dia- 
gram of  a  continuous  house  containing  sixteen  pens,  each  reached  directly 
from  a  walk  running  the  entire  length  of  the  building.  Each  pen  is  8  ft. 
square.  The  passage  is  4  ft.  wide.  The  height  of  the  building  is  6  ft.  at  the 
eaves,  8  ft.  at  the  peak.  Joining  the  west  end  of  the  poultry  house  is  a  two- 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


31 


;  *<*;: 


•4T 


9-1 


YAftO 


Fig.  1 1 .    Continuous  House  with  a  Walk. 

story  building  to  be  used  as  work  shop,  cook  room  and  store  room.  The 
ground  dimensions  of  this  building  are  12  x  20  ft.  It  is  14  ft.  high  at  the 
eaves,  16  ft.  at  peak  of  roof;  the  first  story  8  ft.  in  the  clear.  The  diagram 
also  shows  the  plat  of  yards.  The  small  yards  8  x  32  ft.  correspond  to  the 
divisions  of  the  house.  For  every  two  small  yards  there  is  one  large  yard 
1 6  x  64  ft.,  to  be  kept  in  grass.  The  capacity  of  the  house  is  one  hundred 
and  sixty  to  two  hundred  and  forty  fowls,  with  ten  to  fifteen  in  each  pen. 
The  frame  of  the  long  house  may  be  constructed  with 
sills  of  4  x  4  in.  stuff ;  studs,  plates  and  rafters  of  2  x 
3  in.  scantling ;  studs  and  rafters  being  4  ft.  apart  at 

— ''  centers,    except  in  front,  where  the 

iSS=  studs  should  be  spaced  to  come  be- 
ll^'r    side  window  openings.       The  studs 
' " — "—  and  rafters  of  the  two-story  building 

Elevation  of  Front  of  Two  Story  Building  and    ,,*-,*.  T  .- 

PartofLongBuildinginFig.il.  should  be  2  ft.    apart,    at   CCllterS.       II 


Fig.  12. 


a  board  floor  is  put  in  the  lower  room  2  x  8  in.  joists  should  be  used,  the 

same  as  for  the  upper  floor. 

Materials. 

Dimension  lumber  : — 

20  pieces  4  x  4  in.,  16  ft.  long ;  26  pieces  2x3  in.,  16  ft.  long ; 

94  pieces  2x3  in.,  14  ft.  long;  45  pieces  2x3  in.,  12  ft.  long; 

2  pieces  2x3  in.,  20  ft.  long;  24  pieces  2x8  in.,  12  ft.  long; 

8  pieces  2x2  in.,  16  ft.  long : 

2210  sq.  ft. 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRA  FT. 


Sheathing,  (rough)      .     .     .     .  "  ,     ."..  V*  *  \.».   v?  ,     ..,,.'  .     «     .""*''.     .     .     .    5500  sq.  ft. 

Sheathing,  (surfaced  for  droppings  boards) 200  sq.  ft. 

Matched  flooring  for  floors,  doors,  grain  bins 750  sq.  ft. 

Building  paper,  to  cover 45°°  sq-  ft. 

2  rolls  wire  netting  5  ft.  wide,  2-inch  mesh. 

22  6-light  sash,  10  x  14  glass;  2  4-panel  doors;  2  pr.  loose  pin  butt  hinges;  2  pr.  6-in.  T 

hinges;   16  pr.  4~in.  T  hinges;  2  locks;  nails,  screws,  hooks,  staples,  etc. 

NOTE. —  If  the  building  is  covered  with  shingles  the  pitch  of  the  roofs  must  be  greater 
than  in  the  figure.  The  roofs  should  be  i  ft.  higher  at  the  peaks  —  35  thousand  shingles 
are  required  to  cover  the  building,  laying  them  on  the  roof  5  in.,  and  on  the  sides  6  in.  to 
the  weather. 

37.  Plan  for  Doing  all  Work  from  the  Walk.  —  Fig.  13  shows  how 
the  pens  in  a  house  of  the  style  described  in  ^[36  may  be  arranged  to  permit 
all  work, — feeding,  watering,  cleaning  droppings  boards,  and  collecting 


•f 


Eiiiimyiiinnnr 


Fig.  13.  Showing  the  Arrangement  for  Doing  the  Work  in  a  Long  House 
from  the  Walk.  P,  passage;  R,  roost  platform;  a,  door  to  roost;  c,  door 
to  nests. 

eggs  —  to  be  done  from  the  walk.  The  arrangement 
cannot  be  considered  the  best  for  a  practical  poultry 
man  seeking  a  plan  by  which  the  items,  cost,  capacity,  and  convenience,  are 
balanced  with  a  view  to  the  greatest  profit.  The  plan  is  also  open  to  criticism 
on  the  ground  that  nearly  all  work  being  done  without  going  into  the  pens,  the 
fowls  do  not  become  accustomed  to  the  presence  of  the  attendant.  Then 
when  it  is  necessary  to  go  into  the  pens,  the  fowls  make  a  disturbance  detri- 
mental to  egg  production.  There  are,  however,  cases  where  it  is  an  advan- 
tage to  the  one  caring  for  the  fowls  to  be  able  to  give  them  all  necessary  atten- 
tion without  going  into  the  pens.  The  arrangement  will  recommend  itself  to 
those  who  want  a  house  in  which  they  can  do  the  daily  chores  without  being 
obliged  to  change  from  their  ordinary  dress  to  a  poultryman's  working  clothes. 

38.  House  with  Two  Rows  of  Pens  and  Passage. — The  Monitor 
Top  House. — Convenience  alone  being  considered,  this  method  of  housing 
is  superior  to  all  others.  A  house  of  this  style  may  face  east  and  west,  the 
common  plan ;  or,  south.  In  the  houses  with  east  and  west  exposures  the 
pens  on  the  east  side  receive  only  the  morning  sun ;  those  on  the  west  side 
receive  the  sun  only  in  the  afternoon.  In  what  is  known  as  the  monitor  top 
house,  Fig.  14,  the  passage  is  made  3  ft.  higher  than  in  the  common  plain 
style  house,  and  windows  placed  in  each  side  of  the  extension,  so  that  each 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 


33 


YARD. 


a^_jiQ^2-a 


i  - 

It      II 


X LJC 


i  n  [M 


TT 


f; 


f.  i 


PEN 


\ 


Fig.   14.     Monitor  Top   House.     Showing  perspective,  ground  plan,  partition  between  pen  and  passage,  and 
irtition  between  pens. 


34 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 


pen  in  the  house  receives  both  morning  and  afternoon  sun.  Opinion  is 
divided  as  to  the  value  of  the  monitor  top  house.  Not  enough  of  them  have 
been  constructed  and  fully  tested  to  show  whether  the  defects  in  the  house 
are  such  as  can  be  overcome,  or  are  irremediable.  As  the  matter  stands,  the 
monitor  top  house  is  recommended  only  for  short  houses  and  for  plants  in 
moderate  climates. 

Materials.   (Fig.  13.) 

28  short  cedar  posts  to  support  sills. 
Dimension  lumber : — 

2  pieces  4  x  4  in.  20  ft.  long ;  4  pieces  4  x  4  in.  18  ft.  long ; 

18  pieces  2  x  3  in.  18  ft.  long ;  8  pieces  2  x  3  in.  12  ft.  long ; 

38  pieces  2  x  3  in.  10  ft.  long;  6  pieces  2  x  2  in.  16  ft.  long  : 

020  sq.  ft. 

Sheathing        2000  sq.  ft. 

Matched  flooring 300  sq.  ft. 

Building  paper  to  cover        1600  sq.  ft. 

12  sash,  6-light,  10  x  12  glass;  98  sq.  ft.  wire  netting,  (2-in.  mesh)  6  ft.  wide;  256  sq.  ft. 
netting  4  ft.  wide;  2  pr.  6-in.  T  hinges,  6  pr.  4-in.  T  hinges,  6  pr.  hinges  for  sash  in 
top  ;  locks,  bolts,  nails,  etc. 

To  estimate  material  for  a  house  without  monitor  top,  use  the  same  ground 
plan,  but  figure  on  studs  in  passage  partitions  3  ft.  shorter ;  rafters  2  ft.  longer 
than  the  long  rafters  over  the  pens ;  as  much  less  sheathing  and  building 
paper  as  are  required  for  the  sides  of  the  monitor  top  ;  and  only  half  as  many 
pieces  of  sash. 

39.     The  Semi-Monitor  Top  House.  —  Fig.  15  illustrates  the  adaptation 

of  the  monitor  top  idea  to  a 
house  facing  south,  but  still 
having  two  rows  of  pens, 
and  a  walk  in  the  middle. 
The  plan  is  not  a  good  one 
for  permanent  quarters  for 
laying  stock.  For  a  surplus 
stock  house  it  works  very 
well.  Sometimes  it  can  be 
used  on  the  site  available 
better  than  any  other. 


Pig.  15.     Semi-Monitor  Top  House. 


40.  A  Scratching  Shed  House. —Without  a  Walk.  — Fig.  16  shows 
a  very  popular  house.  The  prominent  feature  of  the  plan  is  that  it  gives  the 
fowls  a  sheltered  place  with  fresh  air  in  abundance,  and  provision  for  exercise. 
The  house  illustrated  is  10  ft.  wide,  7  ft.  high  in  front,  and  4  ft.  high  in  rear. 
Each  18  ft.  section  has  a  roosting  room  8  x  10  ft.,  and  an  open  front  scratching 
shed  10  x  10  ft.  The  relative  positions  of  the  closed  and  open  parts  of  adjoin- 
ing sections  are  reversed,  bringing  the  parts  together  in  pairs,  two  closed 
rooms,  then  two  open  sheds.  The  cost  of  construction  is  thus  diminished,  and 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 


35 


36  PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 

the  roosting  rooms  are  warmer.  The  fronts  of  the  sheds  are  of  wire  netting, 
with  cloth  curtains  (on  light  wooden  frames  hung  on  hinges)  inside,  which 
are  let  down  in  stormy  weather  and  on  cold  nights.  Each  section  has  a 
capacity  of  twenty  to  thirty  fowls. 

Materials. 

23  short  cedar  posts  to  go  under  sills. 
Dimension  lumber:  — 

5  pieces  2  x  4  in.  10  ft.  long;  4  pieces  2  x  4  in.  18  ft.  long; 

19  pieces  2  x  4  in.  12  ft.  long ;  4  pieces  2  x  3  in.  18  ft.  long ; 

2  pieces  2  x  3  in.  i6ft.  long;  6  pieces  2  x  3  in.  14  ft.  long; 

5  pieces  2  x  3  in.  12  ft.  long : 

356  sq.  ft. 

Sheathing 1000  sq.  ft. 

Matched  flooring T     ,    200  sq.  ft. 

Roofing  paper  to  cover IfeMS!   800  sq.  ft. 

120  sq.  ft.  6ft.  wide  wire  netting,  2-in.  mesh;  64  sq.  ft.  4  ft.  wide  wire  netting;  12  yds. 
muslin  for  curtains;  4  6-light  sash,  8  x  10  glass;  5  pr.  6-in  T  hinges;  2  pr.  3-in.  T 
hinges ;  locks,  latches,  nails,  etc. 

NOTE.  —  Studs  should  be  placed  as  indicated  by  the  small  white  squares  in  the 
diagram,  rafters  2  ft.  apart  at  centers.  The  plan  may  be  changed  to  slightly  lessen  the 
cost  and  increase  a  little  the  capacity  of  the  house.  Records  of  numerous  flocks  kept  in 
houses  of  this  kind  seem  to  show  that  the  better  plan  is  to  have  the  two  parts  of  the 
section  of  equal  size,  and  cover  both  floors  with  scratching  material.  With  such  an 
arrangement,  each  part  being  9  x  10  ft.,  all  studs  and  rafters  in  a  house  with  18  ft. 
sections  are  placed  3  ft.  apart. 

41.  Suggestions  for  Scratching  Shed  Houses. —  The  style  of  house 
described  in  f  40  is  the  one  most  generally  used.  The  original  plan  was  for 
a  close  house,  of  which  a  part  could  be  made  an  open  shed  at  will.  There  is 
reason  to  think  that  in  principle  this  is  the  better  plan,  though  the  particular 
design  first  given  had  objectionable  features.  In  Fig.  17  are  shown  some 
suggestions  for  houses  in  which  the  scratching  sheds  can  be  open  or  close  at 
will.  The  drawing  at  A  represents  a  house  with  sections  of  different 
dimensions,  the  first  16  ft.  long,  the  next  24  ft.  long.  Each  section  is 
divided  into  two  equal  parts,  one  of  which  can  be  made,  practically,  an  open 
shed  by  opening  the  door,  which  is  4  ft.  wide  in  the  small  section,  and  6  ft. 
wide  in  the  large  one.  The  half-windows  light  the  sheds  when  the  doors  are 
closed.  The  design  at  B  shows  another  arrangement  for  fronts  of  shed  rooms 
of  same  dimensions  as  at  A.  The  doors  proper  are  but  2  ft.  wide.  The  half- 
windows  are  placed  I  ft.  from  the  ground.  The  upper  half  of  each  front, 
exclusive  of  the  door,  can  be  opened  or  closed  at  will.  By  an  arrangement 
of  double  hinging,  shown  in  detail  in  Fig.  18,  the  shutters  swing  either  in  or 
out.  In  winter,  when  it  is  desirable  to  admit  the  sun,  the  shutters  swing  in. 
For  warm  weather,  the  shutters  swing  out,  is  an  awning,  excluding  the  sun 
from  the  shed,  shading  the  half-windows,  and  making  the  shed  during  the 
heat  of  the  day  an  ideal  ccol  place  for  hens.  The  stop  over  the  joint  between 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


37 


the  lower  edge  of  the  shutter  and  the  joint  should  be  screwed 
to  the  shutter  when  the  shutter  is  wanted  to  swing  in,  and  to 
the  jamb  when  the  shutter  swings  out. 

42.     Scratching  Shed  House  with  a  Walk.—  Fig.  19 

(p.  38)  shows  how  a  scratching  shed  house  may  be  built  with 
a  passage  from  which  each  pen  and  shed  is  entered  without 
passing  through  others.  The  pens  are  in  two  wings,  running 
east  and  west  from  a  two  story  building 
containing  work  shop,  cook  room  and 
store  room.  In  the  original  plan  each 
wing,  containing  ten  sections,  was  180 
ft.  long.  In  the  plan  here  given  the 
length  of  the  wings  has  been  reduced  to 
bring  the  illustration  within  the  limits 
of  the  page.  The  walk  is  separated,  by 
a  tight  partition,  from  pens  and  sheds, 
and  is  lighted  by  half-windows  in  the 
north  wall,  which  in  the  original  plan 
contained  besides  these  openings  a  door 
every  60  ft.  With  wings  as  short  as  in 
the  plan  given,  a  door  at  the  extreme 
end  of  each  wing  is  all  that  is  needed. 
This  house  has  a  low  stone  foundation. 
The  floors  are  filled  to  the  level  of  the 
sills  with  earth. 


SB 


£ 


Pig.  18.  Section  and  Inside  of  One  End  of 
a  Shutter  as  shown  at  B,  Fig.  17.  P,  plate; 
ss,  position  of  stud;  t,  stop;  hh,  hinges. 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


*.? 


.    rv* 


ft 


H 


1 


-5 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


39 


Materials. 


Dimension  lumber  :  — 

32  pieces  2 

X 

4  in. 

i8ft. 

long; 

8 

pieces  2  x 

4  in. 

i6ft. 

long; 

2  pieces 

2 

X 

4  in. 

14  ft. 

long  ; 

62 

pieces  2  x 

3  in. 

i6tt. 

long; 

28  pieces 

2 

X 

3  in. 

14  ft. 

long  ; 

44 

pieces  2  x 

3  in. 

12  ft. 

long; 

26  pieces 

2 

X 

Sin. 

i6ft. 

long; 

16 

pieces  2  x 

2  in. 

10  ft. 

long: 

T?  nnfincr 

2 1 20  sq.ft. 

7000  sq   ft. 

1500  sq.  ft. 

5500  sq.  ft. 

24  6-light  sash,  10  x  14  glass:  9  pr.  6-in.  T  hinges;  18  pr.  4-in.  T  hinges;  locks,  bolts, 
nails,  screws,  hooks,  staples,  etc.  For  the  chimney  about  40  bricks  for  each  foot  in 
height  will  be  needed. 

To  Make  the  Joints  at  the  Eaves  Wind  Tight. — In  constructing  the  house 
from  which  this  plan  is  adapted,  the  builder  devised  a  novel  and  effective  way 
of  making  the  joint  of  the  side  walls  and  roof  wind  tight.  The  paper  on  the 

sides  (see  Fig.  20)  is  lapped  over 
onto  the  first  board  of  the  roof. 
A  double  row  of  shingles  is  then 
laid,  just  as  if  the  roof  was  to  be 
shingled,  and  the  roof  paper  is 
lapped  well  over  the  shingles. 
If  this  plan  is  followed  in  con- 
structing a  house,  three-fourths 
M.  of  shingles  should  be  added 

to  the  bill  of  materials  given. 
Pig.  20. 

43.  A  Poultry  House  with  Roosts  on  the  Warm  Side.  —  In  Fig.  21 
(p.  40)  is  shown  a  house  designed  to  combine  the  best  features  of  plans  already 
described,  with  a  few  ideas  not  heretofore  generally  applied  to  poultry  houses. 
The  radical  difference  between  this  and  all  other  plans  given,  is  that  the  roosts 
are  placed  near  the  south  wall  and  parallel  to  it.  As  is  well  known,  the  south 
side  of  a  room  is,  as  a  rule,  the  warmest  side.  The  simple  change  in  position 
of  the  roosts  gives  the  fowls  the  warmest  part  of  the  house  to  sleep  in.  To 
make  it  possible  to  keep  the  fowls  comfortably  warm  on  the  coldest  nights, 
and  to  regulate  the  temperature  near  the  roosts,  the  roosts  are  enclosed  in  a 
box,  the  entire  front  of  which  can  be  opened  or  closed  as  desired.  (The  boxed 
roost  has  been  used  for  some  time  by  breeders  of  large  combed  varieties,  but 
has  generally  been  placed  either  near  the  north  wall,  or  in  the  middle  of  the 
pen,  where  it  obstructs  the  light). 

By  removing  the  roosts  from  the  north  wall  and  doing  away  with  a  passage, 
both  earth  floor  and  litter  can  be  removed  and  renewed  through  a  half-window 
in  the  north  side  of  each  pen.  This  work  can  be  done  in  each  pen  without 
disturbing  the  fowls  in  any  other.  The  plan  saves  labor,  earth  and  litter  being 
transferred  directly  from  wagon  to  pen,  or  vice  versa.  In  most  houses  straw 
and  litter  are  handled  through  the  passage,  or  from  pen  to  pen ;  earth  through 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


\ 


Pig.  21.  Poultry  House  with  Roosts  on  South  Side. —  Showing  in  the  upper  drawing  the  exterior  perspective 
of  a  section  12  x  18  ft. ;  below  it  interior  view  of  the  south  side  and  roost  box;  in  the  lower  drawing  the  ground  plan 
in  which  R  is  the  roost  box;  N,  nests;  D,  dust  box;  F,  feed  troughs;  the  small  squares  indicate  the  positions  of  studs. 

the  south  windows,  it  being  necessary  to  remove  a  section  of  every  fence 
connecting  with  the  house  to  make  passage  for  the  cart  or  wagon.  The  result 
of  this  cumbrous  way  of  working  is  that  the  pen  floors  are  more  or  less 
neglected.  With  this  arrangement  the  work  of  keeping  them  in  order  can  be 
made  what  it  should  be  on  a  well  regulated  plant  —  an  odd  job  to  be  taken  up 
between  routine  tasks.  The  disadvantage  of  having  no  passage  in  a  long 
house  is  partially  obviated  by  placing  an  outside  door  in  the  north  wall  of 
every  third  pen  (see  Fig.  26).  The  roosts  being  at  the  south  side  and  boxed 


POULTRT-CRAFT.  41 

up,  it  is  not  so  necessary  that  the  north  wall  be  tight  as  in  other  houses. 
These  doors  should,  however,  have  outside  storm  doors  which  can  be  tightly 
closed  in  the  severest  weather. 

The  house   can  be  built  with   a  walk  as  shown  in  the  diagram,  Fig.  22. 
Here  the  walk  is  3  ft.  wide.     (It  can  be  wider  if  desired).     The  door  between 

.___^  !•!•• iii  walk  and  pen  is  at  the  middle  of 

\  \  each  pen,  and  opposite  the  half- 

window  in  the  north  wall.  With 
this  arrangement  it  is  still  possible 
to  handle  earth,  etc.,  from  pen  to 
wagon  and  from  wagon  to  pen, 
though  the  work  is  not  quite  so 


easy.     The  expense  of  a  walk  is 

Fi*'  22*  considerable  in  a  long  house,  and 

the  additional  width  of  the  building  does  not  increase  its  capacity.  It  is  a 
question  for  each  builder  whether  in  his  case  the  greater  general  convenience 
of  the  walk  will  compensate  for  the  increased  cost  of  the  building,  and  some 
extra  labor  in  doing  special  work. 

The  house  shown  in  Fig.  22  is  12  x  18  ft. :  216  sq.  ft.  of  floor  space,  of  which 
all  but  that  occupied  by  nests  and  dust  box  is  available  exercise  space.  The 
whole  house  can  be  tightly  closed,  or  with  the  windows  and  doors  in  the  south 
side  open,  will  give  all  the  fresh  air  that  can  be  used.  The  doors  and  windows 
can  be  opened  as  much  or  as  little  as  desired.  The  position  of  the  windows 
gives  the  maximum  of  sunlight  in  the  house,  with  the  minimum  exposure  of 
glass.  The  bottom  of  the  roost  box  is  the  droppings  board,  which  should 
have  strips  of  furring  on  the  end  and  back  edges,  but  not  on  the  front  edge, 
and  should  rest  on  cleats  on  which  it  will  slide  like  a  wide  shallow  drawer 
without  a  front.  It  can  be  removed  in  an  instant,  thus  making  it  easy  to  get 
at  the  interior  of  the  roost  box  to  keep  it  clean  and  free  from  vermin.  A  row 
of  i -in.  auger  holes  should  be  bored  at  the  lower  edge  of  each  lower  door  to 
allow  gases  to  escape  when  the  box  is  tightly  closed.  If  preferred,  a  curtain 
of  burlap  can  be  used  in  front  of  the  roosts,  instead  of  the  doors.  The 
illustration  shows  a  house  built  with  sills  and  plates,  and  having  both  roof 
and  sides  shingled.  The  cost  of  the  house  can  be  reduced  by  constructing  as 
in  Fig.  8.  The  roost  box  is  built  with  ends  front  and  bottom  of  matched 
flooring.  Ordinarily  the  wall  back  of  it  need  not  be  doubled,  but  in  a  very 
cold  climate  it  might  be  well  to  line  both  back  and  top  of  the  box  with 
matched  lumber. 

flaterials. 

A  single  house  of  the  dimensions  in  Fig.  21  requires  : 
Dimension  lumber :  — 

2  pieces  4  x  4  in.  18  ft.  long ;  2  pieces  4  x  4  in.  12  ft.  long ; 

2  pieces  2  x  3  in.  18  ft.  long;  14  pieces  2  x  3  in.  12  ft.  long; 

3  pieces  2  x  3  in.  16  ft.  long ;  i  piece  2  x  3  in.  14  ft.  long : 

2 13  sq.ft. 


42  PO  UL  TR  r-  CRA  FT. 

Scathing .-•    »,-.*  600  sq.  ft. 

Matched  flooring 150  sq.  ft. 

Roofing  paper,  or  shingles  to  cover 600  sq    ft 

2  pr.  6-in.  T  hinges;  2  pr.  4~in.  T  hinges;  lock,  bolt,  nails,  etc. 

44.     A  Complete  Plant  Under  Cover. —  As  a  rule  the  plat  of  a  large 
plant  must  conform  to  the  "lay"  of  the  land  on  which  it  is  situated.     It  is 


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Fig.  23.     Plat  of  Plant  Arranged  so  that  Work  may  all  be  done  Under  Cover  in  Stormy  Weather.— A,  central 
building;  B  B,  laying  houses ;  C  C,  brooder  or  brooder  and  surplus  stock  houses;  Yy,  yards;  gg,  gates. 

not  always  possible  to  so  place  the  buildings  that  the  greatest  convenience  in 
doing  the  work  is  secured.  Fig.  23  shows  how,  if  there  is  available  a  piece 
of  level  or  gently  sloping,  (to  the  south  or  southeast)  ground,  400  ft.  long, 
east  and  west,  and  200  ft.  wide,  a  large  poultry  plant  arranged  to  permit  the 
work  to  be  done  for  days  at  a  time  without  going  from  under  cover,  can  be 
placed  on  it.  (It  is,  of  course,  understood  that  on  this  space  only  the  build- 
ings and  yards  are  placed.  There  must  be  additional  room  for  rearing  chicks 
for  stock  birds.  While  chicks  can  be  reared  in  yards,  the  yards  of  this  plant 
would  not  accommodate  the  stock  on  hand  during  spring  and  early  summer 
months) .  Such  an  arrangement  has  immense  advantages.  The  plant  is  very 
compact.  All  supplies  are  conveniently  stored.  Practically  every  part  of  the 
plant  is  accessible  by  wagon.  But  the  best  thing  about  the  plan  is  that  bad 
weather  never  need  interfere  with  the  care  of  the  fowls.  To  the  uninitiated 
it  may  seem  a  little  thing  that  hens  should  be  kept  waiting  for  food  for  an 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 


43 


LOFT.  MAIN  FLOOR. 

Fijf .  24.     Central  Building  of  the  Plant  shown  in  Fig.  23. 


Fig.  25.     Elevations  of  Central  Building  in  Fig.  23.— A,  east  side ;  B,  south  side. 


44 


-  CRAFT. 


I'; 


, 


. 


C 


[ 


E 

E 


it 


hour  or  two  on  a  winter   morning, 

while  paths  are  being  broken  from 

building  to    building ;   and    that  the 

poultry  man  should  occasionally  be 

obliged  to  add  to  his  other  tasks  the 

dead   weight  of   a  few    hours  snow 

.    shoveling.      One  who  has  kept  fowls 

^  for  profit   through    a    single   winter 

^    knows  that  regular  feeding  is  of  the 

"3    utmost  importance.     He  also  knows 

|    that  it  is  at  these  waiting  times  that 

S    hens  develop  such  vices  as  egg  eating 

\    and  feather  pulling.     He  knows  that 

"£    it  makes  a  difference  to  the  poultry 

t:   keeper  whether  his  extra  work  must 
be  done  at  high  pressure  before  the 
g    regular  day's  work  begins,  or  can  be 
done  more  leisurely  at  intervals  dur- 
j  ing  the  day.     On  a  plant  after  this 
^    plan  the  only  path  to  be  made  on  a 
Ij    snowy  morning  is  from  the  dwelling 
J    to  the  door  of   the    main   building. 
Ss    All  others  can  wait  for  fine  weather 
g    and  a  convenient  season. 

1  The  plan  provides  for  a  central 
J?  building,  A  A,  connecting  two  long 
3  houses,  B  B  B,  for  laying  and  breed- 
*°  ing  stock,  and  two  long  brooder  or 
~  brooder  and  surplus  stock  houses, 
ts  C  C  C.  These  long  houses  can  be 
£  built  in  any  style  desired.  The  cen- 
ts tral  building  is  sufficiently  described 
in  the  diagrams  in  Fig.  24,  and  ele- 
vations in  Fig.  25. 

Fig.  26  shows  the  adaptation  of 
house  designs  in  Figs.  21  and  34, 
to  this  general  plan.  All  supplies 
and  products  are  kept  in  the  central 
building.  The  droppings,  collected 
daily,  are  placed  in  boxes,  Fig.  27, 
distributed  as  at  ooo,  Fig.  26.  As 
often  as  necessary  a  wagon  makes 
the  round  of  the  boxes,  removing 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


45 


the    accumulated    droppings.       There    should    be    a    small    covered    opening 
through  the  north  wall  at  each  box,  that  it  may  not  be  necessary  to  leave  the 

building  to    empty  a    pail    of  droppings. 

Some  poultry  keepers  have  bins  for  grain 
connected  with  each  house  much  as  these 
droppings  boxes  are,  though  not  as  nu- 
merous. The  idea  is  a  good  one,  and  can 
be  easily  added  here.  These  extra  bins 
should  be  near  the  ends  of  the  long  houses 
furthest  from  the  central  building. 

The  water  supply  for  a  plant  of  this 
kind  is  one  of  the  first  things  to  be  con- 
sidered. If  connection  can  be  made  with 
a  water  system  the  problem  is  simple.  Failing  this,  there  should  be  a  well,  or 
cistern,  from  which  water  can  be  pumped  to  the  main  floor  of  the  central 
building.  If  a  well,  there  might  be  an  advantage  in  having  a  windmill  and 
tank  so  placed  that  water  could  be  distributed  by  pressure  to  every  part  of  the 
plant.  A  comparatively  inexpensive  way  of  securing  a  limited  supply  of 
water  for  emergency  use  is  to  place  a  large  tank  to  be  filled  from  the  roof,  in 
the  loft  of  the,  main  building.  This  tank  should  be  provided  with  an  overflow 
pipe,  and  the  floor  beneath  it  should  be  made  strong  enough  to  support  its 
weight  when  full  of  water. 


Fig.  27.     Box  for  Storing  Droppings. 


Fij.  28.      Section  of  a  Poultry  House  Arranged  to  Do  all  Work  from  the  Walk.       (By  courtesy  of  J.  P.  Kimmel). 


46 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


45.  Incubator  Cellars. —  A  dry  well  ventilated  cellar  or  basement  is  the 
best  place  for  an  incubator.  Machines  can  be  run  successfully  in  rooms 
wholly  above  ground,  but  require  closer  attention  because  of  greater  and  more 
rapid  variations  in  the  temperature  of  the  room.  Where  only  one  or  two 
machines  are  used  they  are  oftenest  kept  in  the  cellar  of  the  dwelling.  In 
case  of  fire  this  may  invalidate  insurance.  It  is  better  always  to  have  a  place 
specially  for  incubators.  On  a  large  plant  the  incubator  cellar  is  a  necessity. 
Various  methods  of  constructing  incubator  cellars  are  shown  in  Figs.  24,  28, 
34.  In  Fig.  29,  are  end  and  side  elevations  of  an  incubator  cellar  on  the 
plan  most  used  where  a  building  especially  for  incubators  is  constructed. 
This  diagram  indicates  an  incubator  room  7  to  8  ft.  high  at  the  sides.  The 
floor  is  about  3  ft.  below  the  level  of  the  ground,  and  the  earth  is  banked  to 
the  top  of  the  wall. 


Fig.    29.     Incubator  Cellar  —  End  and  Side   Elevations. 

An  incubator  cellar  need  not  be  well  lighted,  but  provision  must  be  made 
for  thorough  ventilation.  The  air  must  be  kent  pure.  Usually  this  is 
accomplished  if  the  cellar  has  arrangements  for  ventilation  about  as  in  a 
good  dwelling  house  cellar ;  but  in  a  cellar  where  many  incubators  are  used 
it  is  found  to  be  an  advantage  to  make  the  roof  high  so  that  the  supply  of  air 
in  the  room  will  be  ample.  Nearly  always  the  windows  have  double  sash, 
those  outside  hinged  at  the  top,  the  inside  ones  hinged  at  bottom,  so  avoiding 
direct  draft  on  the  machines  when  windows  are  open. 

46.  Brooder  Houses. —  The  style  of  brooder  house  used  will  depend  on 
the  system  of  brooding  adopted.  If  the  continuous  pipe  system  is  used,  the 
brooder  house  will,  in  its  general  features,  resemble  the  long  poultry  house 
with  passage  and  single  row  of  pens.  Fig.  29  is  an  exterior  view  of  such  a 


Pijf .  30.     Ground  Plan  of  a  Long  Brooder  House  —  Pipe  System  —  single  row  of  pens. 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


47 


house.  Fig.  30  shows  a  ground  plan,  and  Fig.  31  a  cross  section,  of  a  plain 
style  brooder  house  very  commonly  used.  It  is  13  ft.  wide,  and  any  length 
desired.  The  walk  is  excavated  to  a  depth  of  18  inches,  thus  giving  a  passage 
along  the  north  side  of  a  house  only  4^  ft.  high  at  the  eaves.  The  walk  is  3^ 

ft.  wide  ;  the  brooder  30  in.  wide.  Each 
pen  is  5  x  7^  ft.  The  partitions  between 
the  pens  is  of  board  i  ft.,  wire  netting  2  ft., 
making  the  total  height  3  ft.  The  partition 
between  the  pens  and  the  walk  is  at  the 
inner  edge  of  the  brooder.  This  brooder 
is  really  a  long  box  containing,  generally, 
four  pipes  —  two  flow  and  two  return  — 
Fig.  31.  Cross  Section  of  Long  Brooder  House  connecting  with  hot  water  heater,  placed  in 

-pipe  system-  single  row  of  pens.  Qf    ^ 


floor,  at  one  end  of  the  house.  (In  very  long  houses  the  heater  is  sometimes 
placed  in  the  middle).  At  the  end  near  the  heater  the  pipes  are  about  4  in. 
from  the  floor.  They  rise  gradually  until,  at  the  further  end,  they  are  8  in. 
from  the  floor.  They  pass  through  holes  bored  at  the  proper  height  in  each 
cross  partition  of  the  brooder,  (the  partitions  of  the  brooder  correspond  to 
the  pen  partitions),  and  require  no  other  supports.  The  top,  or  cover,  of  each 
section  of  the  brooder  is  of  matched  boards  held  together  with  cleats,  and 
lined  on  the  under  side  with  building  paper.  These  covers  are  sometimes 
hinged  ;  sometimes  rest  on  cleats  nailed  to  the  sides  of  the  brooder.  The  side 
of  the  brooder  next  the  walk  is  a  solid  board.  The  side  communicating  with 
the  pens  is  of  woolen  cloth  with  slits  at  short  intervals  to  permit  the  chicks 
passing  in  and  out.  The  pens  nearest  the  heater,  where  the  pipes  are  lowest, 
are  used  for  the  smallest  chicks.  As  each  hatch  comes  ofF  the  whole  lot  of 
chicks  is  advanced  one  or  more  pens,  being  driven  through  small  doors  in  the 
partitions  between  the  pens. 

In  the  plan  shown  in  Fig.  32  the  pipes  are  laid  level,  and  the  smaller  chicks 
brought  near  the  heat  by  the  use  of  movable  floors  or  by  filling  up  the  brooder 
floors  with  chaff.  This  plan  is  preferred  by  many,  as  it  does  away  with 
moving  the  chicks  to  accommodate  each  new  lot.  If  pens  are  all  of  a  size, 
the  lots  must  be  divided  as  the  chicks  grow.  In  some  houses  the  pens  are 
made  of  varied  widths  to  provide  for  lots  nearly  equal  in  number,  but  varying 
in  size.  In  the  colder  sections  of  the  country  many  have  put  pipes  along  the 
north  wall  of  the  brooder  house,  because  they  found  it  difficult  to  keep  up  the 
temperature  on  cold  nights.  Their  difficulty  was  due  to  using  too  small  a 
heater;  and  the  builder  should  take  care  to  avoid  their  mistake  instead  of 
imitating  their  way  of  correcting  it. 


47.  Nursery  Brooders  in  a  Long  House. — Instead  of  starting  chicks 
under  pipes  a  few  inches  from  the  floor,  many  use  nursery  brooders.  These 
are  small  separate  brooders  heated  by  lamps.  They  are  purchased  complete 


48 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


from  manufacturers,  and  are  usually  nearly,  if  not  quite,  like  the  brooders 
used  for  brooding  in  detached  houses.  When  these  brooders  are  used  in 
connection  with  the  pipe  system,  a  common  plan  is  to  have  the  heater  near 
the  middle  of  a  long  house,  pipes  running  one 
way  from  the  heater,  and  the  pens  in  the  opposite 
direction  being  used  for  nursery  brooders  —  one 
in  each  pen. 


S&CTI9/S  TMR9UGh  C~ 


By  Courtesy  Reliable  Poultry  Journal. 

Fig.  32.  Brooder  House  with  Incubator  Cellar, —  Main  house,  16  x  52  ft.;  wing,  8  x  16  ft.;  basement,  16  x  16  ft.; 
hall,  4  ft.  wide;  pipes  8  in.  from  the  floor,  six  one-inch  flow  pipes;  one  two-inch  return  pipe.  House  double 
boarded  with  paper  between.  Cost  complete,  about  $250. 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


49 


48.  Houses  for  Separate,  or  Detached  Brooders.  —  The  pipe  brooder 
house  can  be  used  only  to  brood  chicks ;  its  arrangement  makes  it  unsuitable 
for  housing  stock.  Besides  this,  the  brooder  being  built  into  the  house,  if 

once  it  becomes  infested  with  lice 
there  is  great  difficulty  in  getting  rid 
of  them.  Some  poultrymen  use 
detached  brooder  houses  like  that 
shown  in  Fig.  33.  In  this  is  placed 
a  small  brooder,  which  is  removed 
when  the  chicks  no  longer  need  the 
heat.  Roosts  may  then  be  put  in, 
and  the  chicks  kept  in  the  same 
house  until  grown.  Fig.  34  shows 
how  this  simple  detached  brooder 


Fig.  33.     A  Detached  Brooder  House. 


house  has  been  developed  into  a  long  house  with  a  separate  compartment  for 
each  brooder.  This  house  has  no  walk.  Communication  between  pens  is 
through  doors,  near  the  front  in  the  partitions.  There  are  yards,  as  wide  as 
the  sections  of  the  house,  and  as  long  as  wanted,  and  the  house  can  be  used 
for  laying  stock,  for  surplus  cockerels,  or  for  fattening  stock. 

49.  Fences.  —  The  fence  question  is  a  very  simple  one.  The  fence 
must  be  high  enough  to  prevent  the  fowls  from  flying  over ;  strong  enough  to 
stand  a  stiff  wind  storm  without  damage.  Contiguous  yards  in  which  adult 
males  are  kept  must  have  at  least  the  first  2  ft.  in  height,  of  tight  boards. 
The  common  fencing  materials  are  lath,  wire  netting,  and  woven  wire. 
Wire  fences  give  best  satisfaction.  Lath  fences  are  sometimes  preferred  for 
the  shade  they  afford.  It  is  better  to  use  wire,  and  make  shelters  in  the  yards. 
For  movable  fences  wire  is  now  always  used.  The  height  of  fence  needed 
is  :  for  Asiatics,  3  to  4  ft. ;  for  American  varieties,  5  to  6  ft.  ;  for  small  breeds, 
5  to  6  ft.,  according  to  size  of  yard;  small  yards  require  higher  fences.  If 
fowls  are  not  kept  in  bounds  by  a  6-ft.  fence  their  wings  should  be  clipped, 
or  the  run  covered  with  netting  of  3-in.  mesh. 


Fig,  34.    A  Brooder  and  Surplus  Stock  House. 


50  POULTRT-  CRA  FT. 

50.  Hints  to  Builders.  —  How  Much  Room  per  Fowl. — The  rule  so 
often  given,  10  sq.  ft.  house  floor  space,  and  100  sq.  ft.  yard  space  to  each 
fowl,  is  not  generally  adhered  to  by  poultry  keepers.  In  practice  it  is  found 
that  small  flocks  need  proportionally  more  room  than  large  ones.  Large  hens 
need  more  room  than  small  ones,  though  being  less  restive  in  confinement, 
the  difference  is  not  strictly  in  proportion  to  size.  If  fowls  have  to  be  closely 
housed  for  long  periods  they  need  more  house  room  than  if  they  can  be  out  of 
doors  nearly  all  the  time.  Some  house  plans  give  greater  capacity  than 
others,  but  this  depends  more  on  position  of  doors  and  windows,  and 
arrangement  of  interior  fixtures,  than  on  actual  floor  dimensions. 

House  Room.  — Floor  Space. — For  hens  of  the  medium  sized  breeds,  in 
flocks  of  twelve  or  more,  the  allowance  of  floor  space  should  be  5  to  6  sq.  ft. 
per  hen.  For  smaller  flocks  the  space  per  hen  should  increase  as  the  number 
of  hens  decreases.  Practically  as  large  a  house  is  needed  for  eight  or  ten  hens 
as  for  twelve.  This  rule  may  safely  be  used  in  planning  houses  of  any 
required  average  capacity.  Inexperienced  poultry  keepers  should  keep  on  the 
safe  side  of  it  when  stocking  house  s ;  for  their  judgment  on  the  matters 
referred  to  as  affecting  the  application  of  a  general  rule,  is  apt  to  be  faulty, 
and  most  apt  to  err  in  the  direction  of  overcrowding,  which  is  a  serious 
evil. 

Cubic  Space.  — No  rule  for  this  need  be  given.  The  plain  rule  for  height 
of  buildings,  given  as  axiom  J,  under  ''Making  Plans  and  Estimates," 
being  followed,  a  house  will  have  abundant  air  space  for  all  the  fowls  its 
floor  will  accommodate. 

Tard  Room. —  If  yards  are  to  be  in  permanent  sod,  the  rule  of  100  sq.  ft. 
per  hen  is  about  right.  If  other  provision  is  made  for  green  food,  the  yards 
being  simply  exercise  grounds,  estimates  for  yards  may  be  made  on  a  basis  of 
25  to  30  sq.  ft.  per  fowl.  An  intermediate  system  of  yarding  is  sometimes 
used.  This  gives  each  pen  of  hens  a  small  exercise  yard,  and  to  every  two 
pens  a  grass  yard.  This  last  is  generally  smaller  than  could  be  kept  in  sod 
were  the  hens  constantly  on  it,  and  the  hens  are  given  the  run  of  the  grass  for 
only  a  few  hours  daily. 

Making  Plans  and  Estimates. —  While  not  requiring  much  mechanical 
skill,  economical  poultry  house  construction  calls  for  some  ingenuity  in  plan- 
ning to  use  materials  without  waste.  Plans  given  in  this  chapter  are  drawn 
to  scale,  and  may  be  used  as  working  plans  when  no  changes  are  made ;  but 
it  is  advised  that  for  all  but  the  most  simple  constructions  plans  be  re-drawn 
on  an  enlarged  scale.  The  mere  drawing  of  the  working  plan  gives  the 
novice  in  building  a  better  idea  of  what  he  has  to  do,  and  how  best  to  go 
about  it,  and  working  from  a  plan  he  is  less  likely  to  make  the  numerous  and 
common  mistakes  of  amateur  carpenters.  If  changes  are  made  new  plans 
must  be  drawn.  One-fourth  inch  to  the  foot  is  a  good  scale  for  house  plans  ; 
for  plats  of  large  plants  a  scale  of  one-sixteenth  inch  to  the  foot  is  convenient. 

r    T  JT.  /,  X.  rT  Ifr 


POULTRT-CRAFT.  51 

In  making  plans  a  few  simple  rules,  which  may  well  be  called  axioms, 
should  be  observed : 

(i.) — Permanent  quarters  for  stock  should  be  on  the  ground  floor.  Second 
floor  space  may  be  used  for  temporary  quarters  for  surplus  stock,  for 
fitting  exhibition  birds,  for  storage,  etc. ;  but  not  much  second  floor 
space  is  needed. 

(2.) — Walls  should  be  perpendicular.     A  sloping  front  is  a  bad  fault. 
(3.) — A  house  should  be  as  high  as  necessary  to  accommodate  those  work- 
ing in  it ;  but  not  higher.     Additional  height  increases  the  cost  of  the 
house,  and  increases  the  difficulty  of  regulating  the  temperature. 
Ventilators  are   not  needed.     A    poultry   house    can    be   aired   just   as    a 
dwelling  house  is  —  by  opening  doors  and  windows  as  much  or  as  little  as  the 
weather  conditions  require. 

Buying  Materials. —  Lumber  ordered  should  be  of  such  lengths  that  there 
will  be  the  least  possible  waste  in  using  it.  It  is  safest  to  order  a  little  more 
than  is  needed.  This  insures  against  delays  from  shortages  of  material. 
What  is  not  used  can  usually,  if  purchased  of  a  local  dealer,  be  returned.  If 
not  returnable  it  should  be  stored  away  for  the  time  —  sure  to  come  —  when 
it  will  be  needed.  Refuse  to  accept  any  and  every  piece  of  dimension  lumber 
that  is  not  straight,  free  from  bad  knots,  and  of  the  full  length  required.  See 
to  it  that  the  sheathing  delivered  is  of  full  surface  measure.  In  estimating 
the  amount  of  matched  flooring,  or  lapped  siding,  needed  to  cover  a  given 
surface,  make  allowance  for  matching,  or  lapping,  by  adding  one-fifth  to  the 
surface  measure.  Shingles  of  good  quality  are  cheapest  at  first  cost,  as  well 
as  in  the  long  run.  The  builders'  rule  is  a  thousand  shingles  laid  4  in.  to  the 
weather,  to  the  square  (100  sq.  ft.)  If  the  sheathing  on  poultry  house  roofs 
is  laid  close,  and  a  thin  sheathing  paper  used  under  the  shingles,  shingles  may 
be  laid  4^  or  5  in.  to  the  weather.  On  the  sides  of  buildings  they  may  be 
5  or  6  in.  to  the  weather.  Taking  both  sides  and  roof  into  consideration, 
a  safe  estimate  for  shingles  will  be,  a  thousand  to  every  120  sq.  ft. 

Prepared  Roojing  Papers.  —  These  vary  in  quality.  Those  advertised 
especially  for  poultry  and  farm  buildings,  are  the  best.  Common  tarred 
sheathing  paper  is  not  suitable  for  exterior  use.  Tarred  felt  may  be  used 
outside,  and  if  protected  with  a  coat  of  tar  will  last  for  some  time,  but  is  very 
much  inferior  to  the  specially  prepared  papers.  Though  the  best  papers  are 
not  as  good  as  shingles,  they  are  a  boon  to  poultrymen  with  small  capital ; 
properly  put  on  and  regularly  painted,  they  last  a  ]ong  time,  and  at  first  cost 
are  much  cheaper  than  shingles.  Paper  can  also  be  used  to  cover  old 
buildings  not  suitable  for  shingling.  Dealers  in  builders'  supplies  generally 
carry  stocks  of  roofing  papers.  Sometimes  people  hesitate  to  buy  the  special 
brand  they  want  because  the  local  dealer  does  not  keep  it,  and  the  factory 
is  so  far  away  that  freight  would  add  too  much  to  the  cost.  Manufacturers 
usually  have  distributing  agents  in  different  sections.  Write  to  headquarters 


52  POULTRT-CRAFT. 

for  information.  The  request  will  be  referred  to  the  nearest  agent.  Different 
makes  of  paper  vary  in  width,  and  in  the  quantity  in  a  roll.  When  a 
particular  kind  of  paper  is  to  be  used  it  may  be  well  to  make  the  dimensions 
of  the  building  suit  the  paper.  A  change  of  a  few  inches  in  a  measurement 
of  the  original  plan  sometimes  saves  material  and  labor  without  appreciably 
affecting  the  capacity  of  the  house. 

Paint. — Roofing  papers  and  all  exposed  (outside)  wood  surfaces,  except 
shingles,  should  be  painted.  Shingles  on  roofs  of  slight  pitch  last  longer 
unpainted.  Pure  lead  and  oil  makes  the  best  paint.  After  this  come  the 
prepared  paints  ground  in  oil,  of  the  consistency  of  keg  lead,  and  to  be 
thinned  with  oil.  The  best  cheap  paints  are  made  of  Venetian  red,  yellow 
ochre,  or  brown  earth  paint,  (often  called  mineral  paint) ,  mixed  with  boiled 
linseed  oil.  The  red  and  yellow  can  be  bought  either  in  dry  form  or  ground 
in  oil.  The  brown  is  usually  to  be  had  only  in  the  dry  form.  Paint,  when 
applied,  should  be  of  such  consistency  that  it  works  freely,  but  does  not 
4 'run." 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT.  53 


CHAPTER    IV. 


Poultry   Fixtures. 

51 .  Roosts.  — The  reader  will  have  noticed  in  the  plans  where  the  height 
of  the  roost  is  indicated  the  roosts  are  placed  low  down ;   he  will  also  have 
observed  that  when  more  than  one  roost  is  used  the  roosts  are  on  the  same 
level.     There  are  several  reasons  for  low  roosts.     Fowls  of  the  heavy  breeds 
cannot  fly  to  a  high  roost.     Fowls  of  all  but  the  lightest  breeds  often  injure 
their  feet  by  jumping  from  a  high  roost  to  a  hard  floor.     When  droppings 
boards  are  used  they  should  be  tolerably  low  down,  both  for  convenience  in 
cleaning,   and   that   the    least  possible  portion  of  dust  from  them  may  be 
breathed  in  by  the  person  doing  the  work.     The  roost  being  but  a  few  inches 
above    the  board,    low    roosts    are    most    common,    even    for    Leghorns    and 
Minorcas.     The  object  of  having  all  roosts  on  the  same  level  is  to  prevent 
fowls  crowding  one  another  from  the  roosts,  as  they  do  when  the  roosts  are 
on   different    levels,  and   the  fowls   all   trying  to  get  on  the  highest.     The 
amount  of  roost  room  per  fowl  varies  with  the  size  of  the  fowl.     As  a  rule, 
fowls  sit  close  together  on  the  roosts,  even  in  hot  weather,  and  when  there  is 
room  to  spare.     For   Leghorns   6  to   7  in.,   for  Wyandottes   and  Plymouth 
Rocks  7  to  9  in.,  for  Brahmas  and  Cochins  8  to  10  in.,  will  be  safe  estimates. 
The  roosts  should  be  about  8  in.  from  the  droppings   board,  and,  unless  it 
extends  clear  across  a  pen,  should  be  a  little  shorter  than  the  board.     Some 
use  2  x  2  in.   scantling  for  roosts,   others  prefer  wider   stuff,   especially  for 
heavy  fowls.     For  short  wide  roosts,  inch  stuff  4  or  5  in.  wide  will  do.     For 
long  roosts,  stuff  must  be  thicker,  or  the  weight  of  the  fowls  causes  it  to  sag 
in  the  middle.     The  upper  edges  of  the  roost  should  be  slightly  rounded. 

52.  Droppings   Boards. —  These    may   be   of   matched    flooring,   or   of 
sheathing  surfaced  on  one  side.     Strips  of  furring  2  in.   wide  are  generally 
nailed  to  the  edges  of  the  board  to   prevent  the  droppings  being  scattered. 
For  a  single  roost,  the  board  should  be   18  or  20  in.  wide ;  for  two  roosts, 
about  3  ft.  wide.     Droppings  boards  are  a  great  convenience  in  a  well  kept 
house.     A  neglected  house  is  better  without  them.     If  droppings  are  allowed 
to  accumulate,  the  boards  become  saturated  with  liquid  manure,  and  being  so 
close  under  the  fowls,  make  bad  conditions  worse. 

53.  Nests. —  On  some  of  the  best  equipped  plants  the  nests  in  the  laying 
pens  are  soap  boxes  placed  on  the  floor  in  the  corner.     These  answer  admir- 


54 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


i 


ably  as  long  as  there  are  no  egg 
eaters  in  the  pens.  Such  nests  may 
also  be  used  for  sitters,  but  where 
many  hens  are  set  it  is  difficult  to 
Fig.  35.  Dark  Nests  to  go  under  Roost  Platform.  manage  them  in  the  open  nests. 

Fig.  35  shows  a  bank  of  dark  nests  to  go  under  a  roost  platform.     Fig.  36 

shows  how  dark  nests  may  be  constructed  to  attach  to  the  wall  at  a  suitable 

height  from  the  floor,  thus  saving 

floor   space.     This    nest  is   mov- 

able.    The  sloping  top   prevents 

hens    perching   on    it.      Fig.   37 

shows    a   good  nest  for  a  sitting 

hen.     Fig.  38  shows  similar  nests 


^  36    Dark  Nest  to  hang  on  WaU    A>  exterlor  v|ew. 

B,  interior  view;  a,  mortised  block  to  hold  nest  in  place. 


built  in  pairs,  and  with  movable 
front  to  confine  the  hens  to  the 
nests  at  the  will  of  the  keeper. 
Fig.  39  shows  how  nests  may  be 
placed  in  a  partition  and  each 
nest  connected  at  will  with  either 
of  two  pens.  The  particular  ad- 
vantage of  these  reversible  nests  is  that  they  do  away  with  the  changing  of 
the  broody  hens  to  new  nests.  Fig.  40  shows  how  the  fronts  of  the  nests 
are  made.  Covered  nest  boxes  should  be  not  less  than  12  in.  high,  (14  in.  is 
better),  and  from  12  to  14  in.  square,  according  to  the  size  of  the  hens. 

Patent  Nest  Boxes. — Nest  arrangements  designed 
to  show  which  hens  are  laying,  and  also  to  keep  lay- 
ing records  of  individual  hens,  cannot  be  described 
or  illustrated  here.  The  best  of  them  are  patented. 
The  others  do  not  meet  general  approval.  Those 
wishing  such  nests  will  find  them  advertised  in  the 
poultry  papers.  They  are  not  expensive,  and,  once 
Fig.  37.  Nest  for  a  Sitting  Hen.  used,  are  considered  indispensable. 

54.      Feed  Troughs. —  The  common  V-shaped  trough  is  the  cheapest  and 
most  easily  made.     A  trough  3  ft.  4  in.  long  may  be  made  from  a  lo-in.  board 

4  ft.  long,  at  a  cost  of  about  five  cents. 
To  make  such  a  trough  cut  a  piece  8  in. 
long  from  the  board :  cut  this  again 


h  j 


Fig.    38.    Double  Nest  Box  for    Sitters. 


Fig.  39.     Reversible  Nests  to  go  in  partition  between  pens. 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 


55 


lengthwise,  making  two  pieces  each 
5  x  8  in.  These  are  for  the  ends. 
Cut  the  remainder  of  the  board  in 
two,  lengthwise,  making  one  piece 
4^  in.  wide,  the  other  5^  in.  wide. 
Nail  the  wide  piece  to  the  narrow 

Fig.  40.     Front  of  Reversible  Nests,  showing  nests  at  o  o, 

open;  atss,  closed.  one  ;  nail  on  the  ends.    Many  poul- 

trymen  use  a  shallow  flat-bottomed  box  trough,  6  or  8  in.  wide.  A  labor 
saving  trough  of  this  kind  is  made  by  using  for  the  sides  pieces  4  or  5  in.  wide 
nailed  at  the  middle  to  the  edges  of  the 
bottom,  thus  making  a  reversible  trough. 
A  trough  on  the  floor  of  a  pen  catches 
some  litter  and  dust,  which  have  to  be 
removed  before  food  is  placed  in  it. 
This  is  usually  effected,  with  an  open 
trough,  by  turning  it  over.  The  revers- 
ible trough  saves  the  movement  of  turn- 
ing the  trough  back — quite  a  saving  in 
a  year  on  a  large  plant.  Fig.  41  shows 
two  feed  troughs  designed  to  keep  fowls 
from  getting  in  the  troughs  and  fouling 
the  food  with  their  feet.  Such  troughs  F!*'  41>  Fecd  Troughs' 

should  be  used  if  soft  food  is  allowed  to  stand  before  the  fowls.  In  a  clean 
house  and  for  fowls  fed  only  what  mash  they  will  eat  "  clean  and  quick,"  the 
plain  troughs  are  just  as  good.  Those  who  want  something  nicer  than  the 
homemade  trough  of  the  practical  poultryman  will  find  several  good  feed 
troughs  on  sale. 

55.  Drinking  Vessels.  —  There  are  a  number  of  different  styles  of  drink- 
ing fountains  made  especially  for  fowls,  on  the  market.  Many  poultry  keepers 
prefer  open  drinking  vessels.  These  may  be  of  iron,  galvanized  iron,  granite 
ware  or  tin.  Objections  to  the  use  of  tin  drinking  vessels  because  oxide  of 
tin  is  a  poison,  are  very  far  fetched.  The  amount  of  poison  a  fowl  would  take 
from  the  drinking  water  is  infinitesimal.  It  is  not  advised  to  buy  tin  drinking 
vessels,  —  for  in  the  end  they  are  most  expensive, —  but  often  it  is  found 
convenient  to  use  as  drinking  vessels  tinware  discarded  for  kitchen  purposes. 
In  a  modern  poultry  house  the  water  pans  are  placed  on  shelves,  high  enough 
from  the  floor  to  keep  the  "  rough"  of  the  dirt  out,  either  in  the  hall  partitions 
or  in  partitions  between  pens.  They  are  sometimes  protected  by  slats,  but 
such  an  arrangement  does  not  favor  dispatch  in  cleaning  and  refilling  vessels. 
Devices  of  this  kind  are  often  strongly  recommended  by  those  accustomed  to 
their  use,  though  the  benefits  are,  all  things  considered,  questionable.  No 
matter  what  arrangement  is  made  to  keep  coarse  dirt  out  of  the  drinking  pans, 
the  fine  dust,  which  is  the  objectionable  and  more  injurious  dirt,  settles  in  them, 
and  should  be  removed  as  often  as  fresh  water  is  given. 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


56.  Receptacles  for  Grit  and  Shell.  —  One  of  the  most  convenient  of 
these  is  a  metal  trough,  like  a  piece  of  the  water  gutter  used  under  the  eaves 
of  buildings.  This  can  be  either  attached  to  the  wall  or  placed  in  a  partition. 
A  similar  grit  trough  is  easily  made  of  wood,  by  making  a  short  V-shaped 
trough  with  the  angle  of  the  sides  very  acute.  In  one  side  holes  can  be  bored 
by  which  to  hang  the  trough  to  nails  driven  into  the  wall  at  a  suitable  height 
from  the  floor.  Boxes  for  grit  and  shell  are  sometimes  made  with  hopper-like 
receptacles  for  a  store  of  grit,  the  bottom  of  the  box  being  a  tray  into  which 
the  grit  feeds  from  the  hopper  as  fast  as  taken  from  the  tray. 


Fig.  42.    Common  A-shaped  Coop. 


Fig.  43.     A-Shaped  Coop  with  Pen  and  Movable 
Shelter  Board. 


57.  Coops  for  Broody  Hens.  — A  small  coop  built  into  a  corner  of  each 
laying  pen,  close  to  the  roof,  is  a  common  provision  for  breaking  up  broody 
hens.     Such  a  coop  should  be  triangular.     The  outside  wall  forms  one  side,  the 
cross  partition  the  other.     The  front  should  be  of  slats,  one  or  two  of  them 
being  movable  to  admit  the  hens.     Detached  coops,  having  slat  bottoms  are 
often  used,  and  are  by  some  preferred,  because  the  hens  have  to  roost  on  the 
slats,  and  cannot  continue  brooding,  as  some  hens  will,  in  a  corner  of  the 
coop. 

58.  Coops  for   Little  Chicks.  —  Of   these  there    is    an    almost    endless 
variety,  conforming  generally  to  one  of  two  plans  ;  they  are  either  ^-shaped  or 
box  coops.     Fig.  42  shows  a  common  ^-shaped  coop,  without  floor  or  coop- 
pen  for  the  hen.     Fig.  43  shows  another  style  of  ^-coop  with  partly  closed 
front,  coop-pen,  and  movable  shelter  board  to  keep  out  sun  and  rain.     This 

coop  may  be  made  either 
with  or  without  floor.  A 
permanent  floor  in  a  coop 
of  this  shape  is  objection- 
able because  of  the  diffi- 
culty of  keeping  the  corners 
between  floor  and  sides 
clean.  This  can  be  over- 
come by  using  a  movable 
floor,  which  is  easily  made 

Fig.  44.     Convenient  Box  Coop  with  Knock-down  Pen.  ^  ^^   ^    grooyes    formed 

by  cleats  near  the  bottom,  (inside),  of  the  sides  of  the  roof.  The  coop  from 
which  the  illustration  was  taken  was  of  matched  flooring,  the  sides  of  the 
roof  22  x  28  in.,  the  angle  between  them  a  right  angle  ;  the  coop  pen  4  ft.  long. 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


57 


In  Fig.  44  is  shown  a  cheap  and  convenient  box  coop  with  "  knock-down " 
coop-pen.  This  coop  is  22  x  24  in.  —  outside  measure, —  on  the  ground  ;  24  in. 
high  in  front,  and  16  in.  high  in  rear.  When  made  of  these  dimensions  and 
of  lo-in.  boards  the  waste  of  material  amounts  to  almost  nothing.  In  the  coop 
illustrated  the  standard  of  the  door  moves  in  a  slot  cut  in  the  roof.  The  roof 
is  nailed  fast.  The  coop  is  cleaned  by  tipping  the  dirt  to  the  back,  then  to 
corner  opposite  the  door,  then  out  through  the  door,  the  hen  being  meantime 
confined  to  the  pen  by  a  screen  of  lath  placed  across  the  end  left  open  by  the 
tipping  back  of  the  coop.  Complete  ventilation  is  insured  by  boring  large 
auger  holes  in  the  door  and  in  the  upper  part  of  the  front ;  or,  a  crack  an  inch 


r  i  G  2 


Fig.  45.     Cat  and  Hawk  Proof  Coops.     (By  courtesy  of  Chas.  Bennett). 

BILL  OF  STOCK  FOR  ONE  COOP:— 

4  pieces  7-8  x  4  in.  spruce  12  ft.  long.  5  pieces  2  in.  furring  5  1-2  ft.  long. 

4  pieces  7-8  x  4  in.  spruce  5  ft.  long.  8  hook  clasps, 

it  pieces  7-8  x  4  in.  spruce  2  ft.  long.  8  good  sized  staples. 

2  pieces  chicken  netting  (i  in.  mesh)  18  in.  wide,  12  ft.  long. 
2  pieces  chicken  netting  (i  in.  mesh)  18  in.  wide,  5  ft.  long, 
i  piece  wire  netting  (2  in.  mesh)  5  ft.  wide,  12  ft.  long. 

To  MAKE  UP: — Take  four  of  the  12  ft.  pieces  and  six  of  the  3  ft.  pieces,  and  make  two  frames  2  x  12  ft.  like  Fig.  i. 
Then  make  two  frames  2  x  5  ft.  like  Fig.  2.  Now  take  the  hook  clasps,  like  Fig.  3,  and  drill  and  countersink  an 
extra  screw  hole  as  in  Fig.  4.  The  house  for  the  chickens  to  stay  in  nights  is  shown,  rear  view,  in  the  upper  figure 
in  the  cut.  It  is  made  of  3-8  or  1-2  in.  stuff.  Make  the  floor  2  ft.  square.  Then  take  three  pieces  7  or  8  in.  wide  for 
the  walls.  Nail  the  bottom  to  these.  Then  put  roof  on,  being  sure  not  to  get  it  more  than  2  ft.  from  floor  of  coop 
to  peak  of  roof.  On  the  back  side,  a  few  inches  from  one  end,  put  a  2  ft.  piece  perpendicularly.  This  is  to  attach 
the  house  to  the  side  of  the  coop  so  that  it  can  be  lifted  with  it. 

Now  take  the  hook  clasps  and  put  them  on  corners  of  Fig.  2,  letting  them  project  far  enough  to  take  the  staples 
that  are  to  be  driven  into  the  corners  of  Fig.  i.  After  hooking  the  end  and  side  pieces  together  put  a  board  on  the 
front  of  the  house  that  will  just  fill  the  opening,  hanging  it  with  hinges  from  the  top,  so  that  when  raised  it  will  make 
a  shade.  Fasten  a  stick  2  1-4  to  3  ft.  long  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  door,  to  project  through  the  netting  of  the  top  of 
coop.  This  is  to  open  and  close  the  door.  Put  the  five  pieces  of  furring  across  the  top  of  coop,  one  at  each  end,  one 
at  the  center,  and  one  at  the  center  of  each  space,  and  nail  lightly.  Spread  the  2  in.  netting  over,  and  fasten  with 
staples  to  the  furring.  After  the  season  when  you  want  to  put  the  coop  away  take  off  top  netting  with  the  sticki, 
and  roll  up.  Unhook  the  corners,  take  off  house,  and  lay  one  of  the  long  sides  on  the  ground,  cleats  up,  put  ends  on 
between  the  cleats,  put  other  side  on  cleats  down,  drive  a  few  nails  where  they  will  hold  all  the  parts  together,  and 
the  whole  thing  can  be  put  away  in  a  small  space. — C.  BENNETT. 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


wide  may  be  left  clear  across  the  front.  For  spring  and  summer  use  it  is 
better  to  leave  the  joints,  between  boards  on  the  sides,  uncovered.  The 
joints  in  the  roof  should  be  covered  with  strips  of  lath  or  batten.  The  slide 
door  can  be  placed  outside  if  desired.  Coops  of  this  style  are  often  made 
with  hinged  roofs,  sometimes  with  only  a  part  of  the  roof,  or  the  lower  half  of 
the  back  on  hinges  to  allow  the  coop  being  cleaned  without  being  moved.  A 
point  to  be  always  observed  in  making  a  coop  of  this  kind  is  :  if  the  roof  is 
nailed  fast,  the  door  must  be  next  a  corner,  to  facilitate  cleaning.  The  coop 
pen  shown  in  the  figure  is  4  ft.  long,  2  ft.  high,  2  ft.  wide  between  the  side 
rails.  The  top  and  bottom  rails  are  of  i-in  stuff  2  in.  wide.  The  sides  and 
end  are  made  separate ;  then  the  end  is  nailed  to  the  sides,  cross  braces  of  lath 
nailed  to  the  lower  edges  of  the  top  side  rails,  the  laths  put  on  the  top,  the  last 
lath  at  the  open  end  being  4  in.  from  the  ends  of  the  side  rails ;  a  single  strip 
of  lath  is  nailed  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  bottom  side  rails  4  in.  from  the  end, 
and  the  pen  is  complete.  When  coop  and  pen  are  placed  together,  the  ends 
of  the  side  rails  overlap  the  sides  of  the  coop,  and  fitting  snugly,  hold  the  pen 
firmly  in  place.  The  coop  is  taken  apart  by  simply  taking  off  the  top  laths, 
removing  braces,  and  knocking  out  the  end.  The  spaces  between  the  slats 
should  be  :  on  top,  3  in. ;  on  sides,  2j  in.  for  medium  to  small  hens,  3  in.  for 
medium  to  large  ones.  The  material  for  a  coop  and  pen  as  shown  in  the 
figure  will  cost  about  fifty  cents. 

59.     Roosting  Coop  for  Growing  Chicks.— Fig.  46  shows  a  roosting 
coop  of  the  general  type  used  for  growing  stock  when  on  summer  range  in 

fields  and  meadows.  The  front  is 
sometimes  all  of  lath  or  netting, 
sometimes  boarded  part  way  down, 
and  sometimes  made  close  with  tight 
door  and  movable  window.  A  coop 
with  the  front  last  mentioned  can  be 


used  in  cold  weather.  These  roost- 
Fig.  46.  Roosting  Coop  for  Growing  Chicks.  ing  coops  are  usually  without  floors. 
They  should  be  of  a  size  easily  handled  —  6  to  8  ft.  long,  about  3  ft.  wide, 
2  to  2j  ft.  high  in  rear,  and  3  to  3^  ft.  high  in  front.  Two  roosts  are  placed 
in  each  pen  about  a  foot  from  the  ground.  Coops  of  this  kind  can  be  bought 
in  knock-down  bundles  at  reasonable  prices. 

60.  Incubators. —  The  large  poultry  keeper  takes  it  for  granted  that 
incubators  are  to  be  a  part  of  his  equipment.  A  few  of  the  older  breeders, 
whose  trade  is  principally  in  stock  and  exhibition  birds,  still  hatch  with  hens ; 
but  for  producing  broilers  and  pullets  in  quantities  for  early  layers,  the 
artificial  is  the  reliable  method.  On  most  large  plants  where  hens  are  used 
their  work  is  complementary  to  that  of  the  machines.  The  small  poultry 
keeper  is  often  at  a  loss  to  know  which  method  of  hatching  to  use.  It  depends 
on  the  person  as  much  as  on  circumstances.  Some  people  cannot  run  an 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


59 


incubator,  or  a  machine  of  any  kind,  for  three  weeks  without  having  some- 
thing go  wrong.  Again,  there  are  those  who  "  have  no  luck  "  hatching  with 
hens,  yet  are  fairly  successful  with  machines.  So  that  it  is  difficult  to  frame 
a  rule  which  can  be  uniformly  applied.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that  a 
poultry  plant,  though  small,  which  is  concerned  with  the  production  of  early 
layers,  or  is  stocked  mostly  with  hens  of  non-sitting  breeds,  ought  not  to  be 
dependent  on  hens  for  hatching.  And,  considering  the  degree  of  efficiency  to 
which  incubators  have  been  brought,  the  practice  of  most  progressive  poultry- 
men,  and  the  tendency  toward  a  more  general  use  of  artificial  methods,  it  is 
safe  to  advise  that  whenever  more  than  two  or  three  hundred  chickens  are  to 
be  hatched  the  incubator  should  be  the  main  reliance.  To  the  considerations 
named,  add  that  the  incubator  is  always  ready  for  work.  It  is  seen  that  even 
those  who  hatch  annually  less  than  two  hundred  chicks  may  find  an  incubator 
invaluable.  Though  in  many  cases  hatching  with  hens  is  cheaper,  and  there 
are  times — (as  in  hatching  small  lots  of  eggs  from  different  pens,  or  of 
different  varieties) — when  a  machine  cannot  well  be  used,  a  poultry  keeper 
entirely  dependent  on  hens  for  hatching  is  in  a  bad  fix  when  the  hens  fail 
him.  Delay  in  getting  broody  hens  is  one  of  the  commonest  causes  of  loss 
and  disappointment  in  small  poultry  yards. 

It  is  wiser  to  buy  an  incubator  than  to  attempt  to  make  one.  Good 
incubators  are  sold  at  such  low  prices  that  there  is  little  inducement  to  risk  a 
homemade  machine,  though  it  were  cheaper,  which  is  to  say  the  least,  doubt- 
ful. The  selection  of  a  machine  need  not  be  the  perplexing  question  some 
make  it.  Results  with  the  best  machines  do  not  differ  greatly.  There  are, 
to  be  sure,  poor  machines  on  the  market ;  but  it  is  easy  to  learn  what  machines 
are  in  use  on  the  large  market  poultry  plants  where  poor  machines  are  not 
tolerated.  If  the  beginner  has  to  learn,  unassisted,  to  run  his  machine,  it  will 
matter  little  which  of  the  popular  makes  he  buys.  If  a  particular  machine  is 
being  operated  in  his  vicinity  by  some  one  who  will  give  him  instruction  in 
incubator  management,  it  is  clearly  to  his  advantage  to  buy  a  machine  of 
that  make. 

61.  Brooders. —  Brooders  are  used  even  more  generally  than  incubators. 
Many  hatch  with  hens,  and  rear  in  brooders.  Where  incubators  are  used 
brooders  are  used  as  a  matter  of  course.  Brooder  houses  are  an  important 
part  of  a  large  plant.  For  small  operations,  either  a  small  pipe  system,  an 
indoor  brooder —  in  a  house  pen,  or  a  detached  brooder  house  —  or  an  outdoor 
brooder,  which  needs  no  house,  is  used.  What  was  said  of  homemade 
incubators  is  equally  true  of  homemade  brooders.  Brooders  can  be  purchased 
either  direct  from  the  manufacturers,  or  through  dealers  in  poultry  supplies. 
Pipe  systems  for  any  size  of  house  desired  are  sold  complete  with  full 
instructions  for  putting  up,  and  sometimes  with  detailed  plans  of  houses  best 
suited  for  use  with  the  system.  In  buying  separate  brooders  it  is  well  to 
remember  that  manufacturers  usually  overrate  the  capacity  of  brooders,  that 


60  PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 

the  use  of  brooders  of  large  capacity  is  not  generally  approved  by  experts, 
and  that  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  growth  of  chicks. 

62.  Feed  Cookers.  —  Wherever  a  large  stock  of  hens  is  kept,  provision 
should  be  made  for  cooking  the  mash.     On  plants  where  a  steam  boiler  is 
used,  food  is  cooked  in  steam  jacket  kettles.     Where  steam  is  not  available, 
set  kettles  —  or,  more  commonly  of  late  years,   feed  cookers,  specially  con- 
structed  stoves    with  large   boilers  —  are  used.     For  baking  johnnycake  for 
chicks,  an  oil  or  gas  stove  with  oven  may  be  used. 

63.  Feed  Mixers.  —  Patented  machines  for   mixing  feed,  either  wet   or 
dry,  are  on  sale.     Poultrymen   who  mix  mill  stuffs  in  proportions  to    suit 
themselves,  will  find  it  worth  while  to  examine  them. 

64.  Bone  Cutters.  —  It  is  often  hard  to  decide  whether  to  use  a  bone 
cutter  or  buy  prepared  meat  foods.     Green  cut  bone  is   considered  the  best 
cut  food  of  the  kind ;  but  it  is  not  always  possible  to  get  fresh  bone  regularly, 
nor  is  it  always  economy  for  the  poultryman  to  spend  time  and  strength  in 
running  a  bone  cutter.     Where  the  commercial  products  can  be  had  without 
the  addition  of  heavy  freight  bills  to  the  cost  price,  it  is  more  satisfactory  to 
use  them  ;  elsewhere  it  is  better  to  use  the  bone  cutter.     Many  poultrymen  cut 
as  much  green  bone  as  they  can,  and  also  use  prepared  foods. 

65.  Grit  Crushers. — There  are  few  places  where,  if  the  commercial 
grits  are  not  on  sale,  a  natural  substitute  cannot  be  found.     Wherever  there  is 
a  gravel  bed  grit  is  easy  to  get.     In  the  far  west  many  poultry  keepers  use  the 
coarse  gravel  from  the  large  ant  hills  for  grit.     For  those  who  must  manu- 
facture the  grit  they  use,  it  is  better,  and  in  the  end  cheaper,  to  buy  a  grit 
crusher   than   to    use  primitive  methods  of  grit   making.     The    cost   of  the 
machines  is  small. 

66.  Hay   Cutters    are    indispensable  where   many  fowls  are  kept.     On 
farms  the  hay  for  the  hens  can  be  cut  in  the  large  hay  cutter  gauged  to  its 
shortest  cut.     If  a  cutter  is  to  be  bought  to  cut  hay  for  hens,  one  of  the  small 
machines  made  for  poultrymen  is  preferable. 

67.  Miscellaneous. — In  addition  to  the  things  specially  mentioned  in 
the  preceding  paragraphs,  a  poultryman's  outfit  includes :  pails,  for  feed  and 
water;  scoops  and  .spoons,  or  trowels  for  feeding;   large  coal  buckets,  for 
collecting  droppings ;  hoes,  rakes,  shovels,  forks,  brooms,  a  wheelbarrow,  etc. 

NOTE.  —  Articles  used  particularly  in  dressing  and  marketing  fowls  will  be  described 
in  the  chapter  devoted  to  those  topics. 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAF'l  \  61 


CHAPTER    V. 


Fowls   Described.* 

68.  Kinds  of  Fowls. —  Common  or  Mongrel. — Old  dunghill  stock 
more  or  less  improved  by  irregular  infusions  of  pure  blood. 

Fowls  produced  by  indiscriminate  crossings  of  pure  breeds. 

Cross  bred,  — produced  from  cross  matings  of  pure  breeds  —  usually  applied 
only  to  the  offspring  of  a  first  cross  —  further  crossing  producing  either  grades 
or  mongrels,  according  as  it  is  systematic  or  indiscriminate. 

Grade,  —  produced  by  systematic  crosses  of  a  pure  breed  on  another  pure 
breed,  or  on  common  stock. 

Pure  bred, — thoroughbred, — the  product  of  a  union  of  typical  specimens 
of  its  breed  or  variety,  which,  when  mated  to  the  breed  type  of  the  opposite 
sex  produces  offspring  of  both  sexes  true  to  type. 

Standard  bred^ — bred  to  conform  to  the  description  of  the  breed  or 
variety  in  the  American  Poultry  Association's!  Standard. 

*NOTE. —  In  the  poultryman's  vocabulary  the  word  **  fowl,"  used  without  a  qualifying 
word,  as  Tvater-iovf\,  jwtif«0-£awl,  always  means  "chicken"  —  specifically  an  adult 
chicken;  while  the  words  "chicken,"  and  "chick,"  are  applied  to  the  young  of  the 
fowl. 

tNoxE. — The  terms,  "standard  bred,"  and  "thoroughbred,"  are  often  used  as 
synonyms,  and  in  many  cases  are  properly  so  used.  Nearly  all  varieties  which  become 
at  all  popular  are  "  admitted"  to  the  Standard,  and  nearly  all  the  varieties  described  in 
the  Standard  are  thoroughbred.  There  are,  however,  pure  breeds  not  recognized  by  the 
American  Poultry  Association,  and  fowls  of  recognized  varieties  may  be  pure  in  blood 
and  well  bred  without  conforming  strictly  to  Standard  requirements.  The  Standard 
color  requirements  for  some  varieties  are  such  that  the  best  types  of  the  different  sexes 
are  produced  from  different  matings,  only  one  parent  in  each  case  being  of  the  type 
desired  in  the  offspring.  Fowls  bred  in  this  way  are  in  reality  first  crosses  of  distinct 
types  of  the  same  pure  breed.  There  are  some  breeders  of  all  varieties  for  which  the 
system  of  double  matings  is  used  who  use  single  matings,  and  produce  stock  that  is 
thoroughbred  and  standard  bred  —  though  not,  perhaps,  reaching  as  high  a  degree  of 
excellence  as  stock  from  the  double  matings. 

Recognition  by  the  American  Poultry  Association  is  not  an  indication  of  the  popularity 


62  POUL  TR  T-  CRA  FT. 

69.  Comparison  of  the  Kinds  of  Fowls. —  With  other  than  pure  bred 
fowls  the  progressive  poultry  keeper  has  little  to  do.  With  common  or 
mongrel  fowls  he  concerns  himself  least  of  all.  That  some  mongrel  hens  are 
healthier  and  more  prolific  than  some  high  class  stock,  is  true.  The  converse 
of  the  proposition  is  equally  true.  As  between  all  common  hens  and  all  pure 
bred  hens,  there  is  little  to  be  said  for  common  hens.  The  experience  of 
most  of  those  who  are  thoroughly  familiar  with  both  classes  of  stock  has  been 
that,  with  rare  exceptions,  they  could  get  better  practical  results  from  thor- 
oughbreds taken  at  random  than  from  the  most  carefully  selected  common 
stock.  The  pure  bred  fowl  is  the  result  of  selections  extending  through  a 
long  course  of  years.  However  faulty  selection  may  at  times  have  been  from 
the  economic  point  of  view,  the  general  result  has  been  infinitely  better  than 
the  natural  selection  which  was  given  free  course  in  the  common  fowls.  It 
is  not  advised  that  a  flock  of  mongrels  doing  well  or  fairly  well  be  discarded 
out  of  hand,  and  a  new  beginning  made  with  pure  bred  stock.  It  is  advised 
that  the  mongrels  be  either  graded  up  to  the  type  of  thoroughbred  best  suited 
to  the  keeper's  purpose,  or  be  gradually  replaced  with  thoroughbred  stock. 

As  between  cross  and  pure  bred  fowls$  it  may  be  said  that  rarely  is  there 
produced  a  cross  the  good  qualities  of  which  cannot  be  paralleled  in  one  or 
more  pure  breeds.  Grades  having  three-fourths  or  more  of  the  blood  of  a 
pure  breed  will  usually  be  on  a  par  in  utility  qualities  with  the  average  of  that 
breed.  Crossing  and  grading  are  ordinarily  to  be  resorted  to  only  for  the 
purpose  of  utilizing  stock  on  hand.  They  are  emergency  methods.  A  poul- 
tryman  who  continuously  produces  fowls  of  impure  blood  throws  away  one 
of  his  best  chances  of  profit ;  for  in  the  long  run  it  costs  no  more  to  produce 
pure  stock ;  and  while  sometimes  pure  stock  of  good  quality  has  to  be  sold  at 
the  market  price  for  poultry,  it  is  certain  that  crosses  and  grades  will  not 
at  any  time  bring  much  more  than  market  prices  —  not  often  enough  more  to 
pay  for  advertising  and  cooping  for  shipment.  It  is  the  hereditary  fixedness 
of  certain  desirable  qualities  and  characters  that  gives  the  popular  varieties  of 
purebred  fowls — (whether  bred  for  utility  or  fancy) — their  superiority  as 
money  makers. 

or  value  of  a  breed.  Breeds  and  varieties  which  never  become  popular  with  any  class  of 
poultry  keepers  are  recognized  in  the  Standard,  while  useful  breeds  quite  widely  popular 
are  rejected.  Of  more  than  seventy  varieties  of  fowls,  (excluding  bantams),  described  in 
the  Standard,  less  than  half  are  popular, —  f.  e.,  varieties  commonly  bred;  and  of  these 
less  than  half,  again,  are  popular  in  the  sense  of  being  commonly  and  extensively  bred, — 
bred  by  those  who  keep  fowls  on  a  large  scale. 

+NOTE. — American  Poultry  Association, — an  organization  of  poultry  breeder^  and 
fanciers,  composed  of  persons  who,  their  applications  having  been  approvec  by  vote  of 
the  association,  become  life  members  on  payment  of  a  fee  of  $10.  Though  not  a 
representative  organization,  its  Standard  descriptions  are  accepted  by  nearly  all  poultry- 
men,  even  those  who  breed  for  economic  purposes  breeding  to  Standard  types  as  closely 
as  they  can  without  sacrificing  utility  qualities  —  as  would  be  done  in  some  cases  by  strict 
adherence  to  the  Standard. 


POULTRY-CRAFT.  63 

70.  Relative  Merits  of  Pure   Bred   Fowls. —  It  was  said  of  situation 
that  fowls  could  be  kept  wherever  men  could  live.     It  might  be  said  of  the 
different  varieties  of  fowls,  that  there  is  hardly  one  that  could  not  be  made 
commercially  profitable  even  by  market    poultrymen    and   farmers.     People 
who  keep  fowls  for  profit  want  not  profit  merely,  but  the  greatest   possible 
profit.     The  common  experience  of  poultry  keepers  has  sifted  from  the  great 
number  of  varieties  the  few  which  with  ordinarily  good  care  and  housing  will 
yield  the   largest  and   surest  returns.     These  are  usually   spoken    of  as  the 
"  practical  breeds."     It  will  be  seen  as  the  varieties  are  described  that  often  a 
single  feature  makes  a  variety  objectionable  for  some  purposes.      This  point 
will  be  considered  more  fully  in  the  next  chapter.     It  is  mentioned  here  that 
the  reader  may  keep  it  in  mind  when  making  comparisons  of  varieties.     He 
will  thus  better  understand  how  it  is  that  the   money  making  ranks   of   some 
excellent  varieties  are  lower  than  their  merits  seem  to  deserve,  and  why  it  is 
that  of  two  varieties  nearly  equal  in  average  merit  one  may  be  very  much 
better  adapted  to  some  special  purpose  than  the  other. 

71.  Terms  Explained. — A  few  terms  used   in  describing  varieties  need 
explanation. 

Fowls  are  often  classed  according  to 'economic  qualities,  as  *'  egg  breeds," 
"  meat  breeds,"  "  general  purpose  breeds."  Such  terms  describe  the  prom- 
inent characteristic  of  the  common  type  of  a  breed,  and  indicate  the  purpose 
for  which  flocks  of  the  breed  are  commonly  kept.  Of  so-called  "  egg  breeds," 
the  most  typical  examples  are  Leghorns  and  Minorcas ;  of  the  "  meat  breeds," 
there  are  three  distinct  types  represented  by  the  Brahma,  the  Dorking  and  the 
Cornish  Indian  Game ;  of  "  general  purpose  breeds,"  Plymouth  Rocks  and 
Wyandottes  are  familiar  illustrations.  It  must  not  be  thought  that  fowls  of 
the  * 4  meat  breeds  "  are  not  good  layers  ;  or  that  good  poultry  cannot  be  pro- 
duced from  the  egg  breeds;  or  that  "  general  purpose  breeds"  unite  in 
perfection  all  the  good  qualities  of  domestic  fowls.  The  "  general  purpose 
fowl"  is  a  combination  fowl  of  a  type  intermediate  between  the  "egg  "  type 
and  the  Brahma  "meat"  type.  General  purpose  breeds  combine  a  high 
degree  of  excellence  as  egg  producers  with  great  merit  as  table  poultry,  and 
especially  with  adaptability  to  being  fitted  for  the  market  at  any  time  after 
reaching  broiler  size.  Some  breeders  of  Brahmas  and  Cochins  breed  fowls 
which  for  profitable  egg  production  crowd  the  best  "  egg  breeds,"  and  some 
breeders  of  the  Mediterranean  varieties  prefer  a  type  of  fowl  which  is  easily 
made  profitable  as  poultry.  Thus  the  choice  of  breeds  is  not  always  as 
limited  as  the  general  descriptions  would  imply. 

Very  hardy  is  applied  to  the  breeds  best  able  to  resist  exposure  and 
unfavorable  conditions.  Hardy  is  applied  to  breeds  which  under  ordinary 
conditions  are  generally  free  from  disease.  Fairly  hardy  is  used  to  describe 
breeds  requiring  a  little  extra  attention  to  keep  them  free  from  disease. 
Rather  delicate,  delicate,  and  very  delicate,  are  used  to  express,  as  nearly  as 


64  PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 

possible,  the  relative  vigor  of  the  less  hardy  breeds.  All  these  terms  should 
be  understood  as  of  general  application  describing  the  average  of  the  breed, 
not  specimens  or  flocks  noticeably  better  or  worse  than  the  average. 

So  the  words,  "  sitters,"  and  "  non-sitters,"  must  be  understood  as  express- 
ing general  characteristics.  It  is  doubtful  whether  there  are  any  breeds 
strictly  non-sitters.  In  nearly  all  of  the  so-called  non-sitting  varieties  hens 
are  sometimes  found  which  show  the  desire  to  incubate.  This  does  not 
necessarily  indicate  impurity  of  blood.  In  some  of  the  "  sitting"  varieties 
are  whole  families  or  ''strains"  in  which  the  desire  to  incubate  is  nearly 
lost.* 

Eggs  are  usually  classed  according  to  color  of  shell,  as  "white"  or 
"  brown."  In  the  white  egg  breeds  the  shells  of  the  eggs  are  not  pure  white, 
but  slightly  tinted  with  a  cream  or  flesh  color.  Hens  of  these  breeds  rarely 
lay  eggs  that  are  even  a  very  light  brown.  In  the  colors  of  shells  of  the  eggs 
of  the  brown  egg  breeds  there  is  great  variety,  —  tints  ranging  from  a  rich 
brown  to  creamy  white.  The  very  dark  shelled  eggs  are  usually  character- 
istic of  strains  bred  especially  for  market  eggs. 

Descriptions  of   Pure   Bred   Fowls. t 

AMERICAN    CLASS. 

72.  Plymouth  Rocks. —  General  Description. — Hardy  ;  general  purpose  ; 
brown  egg  breed ;  sitters ;  medium  to  large  in  size.  Standard  weights,  cock 
9^  Ibs.,  cockerel  8  Ibs.,  hen  7^  Ibs.,  pullet  6^  Ibs.  The  typical  Plymouth 
Rock  is  a  compactly  built,  strong,  but  not  coarse  boned  fowl,  the  general 
contour  of  the  body  presenting  the  "wedge"  shape  so  noticeable  in  a  good 
dairy  cow.  This  is  more  readily  seen  in  the  females  than  in  the  males,  whose 
more  erect  carriage  and  lesser  abdominal  development  takes  away  somewhat 
the  wedge-like  appearance  of  body.  In  all  varieties  the  comb  is  single \  and 
serrated,  in  size  medium  to  small ;  ear  lobes  red,  tail  of  medium  length,  and 
abundant.  In  beak,  shanks  and  toes,  deep  yellow  is  the  color  coveted  by 
fanciers.  The  skin  should  be  yellow. 

*NoTE. —  Those  who  raise  chicks  with  hens  will  always  find  it  worth  while  when  buying 
stock,  to  learn  something  of  its  incubating  propensities ;  otherwise  they  may  be 
disappointed  in  getting  early  chicks,  for  besides  those  families  in  which  the  hatching 
instinct  is  bred  out,  there  are  others  the  hens  of  which  regularly  continue  laying  for  from 
three  to  five  or  six  months  after  beginning  without  going  broody. 

tNoTE. —  In  describing  varieties,  a  few  non-Standard  fowls,  both  domestic  and  foreign, 
are  included  with  the  classes  to  which  they  would  naturally  belong  if  admitted  to  the 
American  Standard  of  Perfection,  the  arrangement  of  which  is  followed  in  these 
descriptions.  The  descriptions  are  not  intended  to  be  minutely  exact.  The  purpose  is 
to  give  to  those  not  familiar  with  the  varieties  a  general  idea  of  the  character  and 
appearance  of  each,  which  if  not  entirely  accurate,  will  not  be  misleading. 

tNoTE. —  A  variety  with  pea  comb  was  admitted  to  the  Standard,  but  failed  to  gain 
popular  favor,  and  was  subsequently  dropped. 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 


BARRED  PLYMOUTH  ROOKS.  —  Fig.  47.  —  The  ground  color  of  plumage  varies 

from  grayish  white  to 
pale  ashen  blue.  In 
the  best  colored  speci- 
mens the  parallel  bars 
crossing  each  feather 
run  from  leaden  blue 
in  light  colored  to  blue 
black  in  dark  speci- 
mens. In  birds  which 
fail  in  color  the  bar- 
ring is  usually  indis- 
tinct ;  the  dark  bars 
show  sometimes  rusty 
red  or  brown,  some- 
times a  greenish  tinge. 
Clear  yellow  legs  and 
beaks  are  common  in 

the    ma  bufc   Rot    Jn 


^•J^^r*''/.*  *, 


Fig.  47.    Barred  Plymouth  Rocks. 

females,  which  oftener  have  a  dark  shading  on  the  upper  beak,  and  greenish 

shading  or  spots  on  the  front  of  the  leg.     This  variety  is  certainly  the  most 

popular  of  all  with  practical  poultrymen,  and,  probably,  also  with  fanciers. 

The  difficulty  of  breeding  it  to  the  perfection  of  Standard  color  requirements, 

and  the  correspondingly  high   prices  paid  for   first   class   specimens  appeal 

strongly  to  the  ambition  and  inter- 

est of   the  fancier-breeder.     The 

double    mating    system    is    more 

generally  practiced  with  this  vari- 

ety than  with  any  other.     It  takes 

a   novice   some  years  to  learn  to 

produce    high    class    stock.       As 

commonly  bred  for  practical  pur- 

poses,  little  attention  is  given  to 

nice  color  points. 

WHITE  PLYMOUTH  ROCKS.  — 
Fig.  48.  —  Were  long  considered 
more  delicate  than  the  Barred 
variety.  With  increasing  popu- 
larity and  more  careful  breeding 
for  vigor  they  have  become  rug- 
ged. The  Standard  description 
calls  for  a  pure  white  plumage, 
yellow  legs  and  skin  ;  a  com- 


- 


Fig.  48.    White  plymouth  Rochs 


66 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


bination  difficult  to  get,  and  pro- 
nounced by  many  experienced  breed- 
ers impossible  to  maintain.  As  a 
rule  yellow  legs  and  skin  go  with 
creamy  white  plumage,  while  a  pure 
white  plumage  is  accompanied  by 
white  or  pink  skin  and  faded  yel- 
low or  flesh  colored  legs  and  beak. 
Practical  breeders  prefer  the  yellow 
legged  fowls  with  a  creamy  white 
plumage,  but  avoid  breeding  from 
birds  in  whose  plumage  the  yellow 
has  unsightly  prominence. 

BUFF  PLYMOUTH  ROCKS. —  Fig. 
49. —  A  new  variety,  rapidly  gaining 
popular  favor.  As  in  all  buff  fowls, 
the  desired  color  is  a  uniform  shade 
of  buff  free  from  white  or  black. 
Though  the  equals  of  the  other  vari- 
eties in  practical  qualities,  they  are  not  a  good  kind  for  a  beginner  who  wishes 
to  sell  a  part  of  his  stock  for  breeding  purposes.  The  variety  is  not  well 
established,  though  many  very  fine  specimens  are  produced.  The  color  is 
difficult  to  handle,  and  in  unskillful  hands  the  proportion  of  culls  is  too  large 
for  profit.  It  is  usually  better  for  novices  to  leave  the  development  of  new 
breeds  to  experts.  Breeders  who  will  be  satisfied  for  a  few  years  with  a  large 


49.    Buff  Plymouth  Rocks. 


Fig.  50.     White  Wyandotte  Pullet. 
(By  courtesy  of  A.  G.  Duston). 


Fig.  51.     White  Wyandotte  Cock. 

(By  courtesy  of  Rowland  &  Whitney). 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


proportion  of  excellent  fowls  from  the  market  standpoint,  and  a  small  percent 
of  good  Standard  birds,  will  find  the  variety  an  interesting  one  to  work  with, 
and  likely  to  prove  immensely  profitable  in  the  future. 


73. 


& 


Wyandottes.  —  General  Description.  —  Hardy  ;    general  purpose ; 

brown  egg  breed  ;  sitters ; 
medium  in  size  ;  Standard 
weights,  cock  8^  Ibs. ,  cock- 
erel  7^  Ibs.,  hen  6^  Ibs., 
pullet  $y2  Ibs.  The  distin- 
guishing characteristics  of 
the  breed  are  the  peculiar 
blocky,  chunky  body  and 
small  neat  rose  comb.  Ear 
lobes  are  red  ;  beak  and  legs 
yellow ;  tail  medium  length 
—  abundant.  In  practical 
values  they  are  generally 
rated  with  the  Plymouth 
Rocks,  but  are  less  widely 
popular  than  that  breed. 

SILVER  WYANDOTTES. 
Fig.  52.  —  In  color  black 
and  white,  distributed  as 
shown  in  the  cut. 


Fig.  52.     Silver  Wyandottes. 


GOLDEN  WYANDOTTES.  —  Figs.  53,  54. —  In  color  black  and  golden  bay, 
the  bay  taking  the  place  of  the  white  in  the  Silver  variety. 

Both  of  these  varieties  are  difficult  to  breed  to  Standard  colors.  In  some 
sections  they  (particularly  the  Silvers)  are  extensively  kept  by  farmers.  Both 
varieties  are  in  demand  among  city  poultry  keepers,  as  their  colors  are  not 
much  disfigured  by  smoke,  and  they  are  not  restive  in  close  quarters. 

WHITE  WYANDOTTES. —  This  variety  is  the  most  formidable  competitor  the 
Barred  Plymouth  Rock  has  had  to  meet.  The  remarks  on  color  of  plumage, 
skin,  etc.,  of  White  Plymouth  Rocks,  apply  also  to  White  Wyandottes. 
They  are  easy  to  breed  uniform  enough  to  satisfy  a  taste  that  is  not  fastidious 
about  fancy  points.  This,  and  the  absence  of  dark  pinfeathers  has  brought 
them  into  high  favor  with  practical  poultry  men. 

BLACK,  AND  BUFF  WYANDOTTES. —  After  what  has  been  said  of  the  breed 
in  general  these  need  little  description  further  than  the  naming  of  their  colors. 
Black  Wyandottes  have  never  been  popular  with  any  class  of  poultry  keepers. 
Buff  Wyandottes  are  a  new  variety,  and  with  Buff  P.  Rocks  are  strong  com- 
petitors for  the  patronage  which  has  been  going  to  Barred  P.  Rocks  and 


68 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRA  FT. 


White  Wyandottes.  The  remarks  on 
breeding  Buff  P.  Rocks  apply  also  to 
Buff  Wyandottes. 

74.     Javas. — Black  and  Mottled. 

Fig.  55.  — Javas  are  fairly  hardy, 
resemble  Plymouth  Rocks  in  general 
characters,  and  have  the  same  Standard 
weights.  They  are  longer  bodied  than 
p  the  Plymouth  Rocks.  Their  legs  are 
i£l^_  willow  colored.  In  most  parts  of  the 
country  they  are  rare.  Mottled  Javas 
are  black  and  white  in  color.  There 
is  a  white  variety,  very  rare,  and  no 
longer  recognized  by  the  Standard. 


Fig.  S3.     Golden  Wyandotte  Cockerel . 
(By  courtesy  of  Ira  Kellar). 


75.      American    Dominiques.   — 

Fairly  hardy ;  sitters ;  were  at  one  time 
a  very  popular  practical  breed  ;  super- 
seded by  the  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks, 
which  resemble  them  in  color.  Dom- 
iniques have  rose  combs,  like  those  of 
Rose  Comb  Leghorns ;  red  .ear  lobes ; 
yellow  beaks  and  legs ;  full,  flowing 
tails. 


Fig.  54.     Golden  Wyandotte   Hen. 
(By  courtesy  of  Ira  Kellar). 

76.  White  Wonders.— (Non-Stand- 
ard) .  —  Hardy ;  general  purpose ;  brown 
egg  breed  ;  sitters ;  large  medium  in  size. 
They  somewhat  resemble  White  Wyan- 
dottes, but  are  larger,  and  have  lightly 
feathered  shanks.  They  are  quite  popular 
among  farmers  and  poultrymen  in  some 
localities,  but  are  not  much  esteemed  by 
fanciers. 


POULTRT-  CRA  FT. 


69 


77.  Rhode  Island  Reds — (Non-Standard) .  — Hardy;  general  purpose; 
brown  egg  breed  ;   sitters ;   large  medium  in  size.     In  color  they  are  of  a  red- 
dish buff,  with  a  strong  tendency  to  the  black  red  color  combination  in  the 
males.     They  are  only  locally  popular,  but  are  becoming  celebrated  for  hardi- 
ness and  prolific  laying.      In  meat  qualities  they  are  considered  inferior  to  the 
other  American  varieties. 

ASIATIC  CLASS. 

78.  Light  Brahmas, —  Fig.  56. — Very  hardy;  meat  breed  ;  large  brown 

eggs  ;  sitters  ;  the  largest  vari- 
ety of  fowls.  The  Standard 
weights,  cock  12  Ibs.,  cockerel 
10  Ibs.,  hen  9^  Ibs.,  pullet  8 
Ibs.  Colors,  black  and  white, 
as  seen  in  the  cut,  except  that 
in  the  flight  feathers  of  the 
wings,  not  visible  when  folded, 
black  largely  predominates. 
They  have  pea  combs ;  red  ear 
lobes ;  short,  full,  spreading 
tails  ;  beaks  yellow,  with  horn 
colored  stripe  on  upper  bill ; 
yellow  skin  and  legs  ;  the  outer 
sides  of  shanks,  and  outer  and 
middle  toes  heavily  feathered. 
Light  Brahmas  are  very  popu- 
lar with  poultry  keepers  of  all 
classes.  Though  considered  a 

Fig.  56.     Light  Brahmas. 

meat  breed,  they  are  good  layers  when 
handled  properly,  and  they  produce  the 
most  of  their  eggs  when  eggs  bring  the 
highest  prices.  If  managed  and  fed  right 
the  chicks  make  good  broilers  or  f rys,  and 
as  large  roasters  the  full-grown  fowls  are 
unsurpassed  among  pure  bred  fowls. 

79.  Dark    Brahmas.  —  Fig.  57.  — 
Hardy  ;   meat  breed  ;  brown  eggs  ;  sitters. 
Except   for  their  pea  combs  they  would 
be  classed  by  a  novice  as  silver  or  gray 
Cochins.       In    shape   they    are    between 
Light  Brahmas  and    Cochins.     Standard 

weights  are  :  cock  1 1  Ibs.,  cockerel  9  Ibs.,  FIjr.  57t   Dark  Brahmas< 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT 


hen  S*4  Ibs.,  pullet  7  Ibs.,  the  same  as  for  Buff,  Partridge  and  White  Cochins. 
In  color  they  are  white,  gray  and  black  combined  as  seen  in  the  cut.  Dark 
Brahmas  are  rather  difficult  to  breed  to  color,  and  can  hardly  be  considered 
popular,  but  are  good  and  useful  fowls. 

Description.  —  Very  hardy ;  of  all  breeds  the 
least  influenced  by  climatic  or 
other  changes,  and  least  restive  in 
confinement ;  brown  eggs  ;  very 
persistent  sitters ;  combs  single, 
serrated,  small  to  medium  in  size ; 
ear  lobes  red ;  plumage  long, 
loose,  fluffy;  legs  and  toes  heavily 
feathered.  (On  many  of  the  heav- 
ily feathered  exhibition  Cochins 
the  inner  as  well  as  the  outer 
side  of  the  shank  is  feathered). 
Cochins  are  generally  considered 
inferior  to  Brahmas,  both  for  eggs 
and  meat.  When  bred  to  good 
breast  development,  fair  specimens 
are  quite  the  equals  of  the  Brah- 
mas as  roasters.  When  bred  for 
eggs  they  rival  the  best  Brahmas 
as  layers.  As  fanciers'  fowls  the 
Fig.  58.  Buff  Cochins.  Buff  and  Partridge  varieties  in 

particular  have  many  admirers. 
Probably  the  highest  prices  ever 
given  for  fowls  in  this  country 
have  been  given  for  Buff  Co- 
chins. Breeding  to  excessive 
feathering  has  prejudiced  prac- 
tical breeders  against  all  varie- 
ties of  Cochins. 

BUFF  COCHINS. —  Fig.  58. — 
Standard  weights,  cock  1 1  Ibs., 
cockerel  9  Ibs.,  hen  8^  Ibs., 
pullet  7  Ibs. ;  color  of  skin  and 
legs  yellow  ;  are  the  most  pop- 
ular variety.  The  prescribed 
color  is  a  rich,  deep,  clear  buff, 
uniform  on  each  specimen.  As 
there  are  differences  of  opinion 
as  to  what  bujf  is,  all  shades 
are  seen,  from  a  pale  lemon  to  Fig.  59.  Partridge  Cochins. 


80.     Cochins.  —  General 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


a  reddish  brown  ;  the  lighter  shades  are 
generally  preferred.  Great  skill  in 
mating  and  handling  is  required  to  pro- 
duce really  fine  specimens ;  but  good 
birds  are  always  salable  at  high  figures. 

PARTRIDGE  COCHINS. —  Fig.  59. — 
Weights,  color  of  skin  and  legs  same 
as  for  Buff  Cochins.  In  color  this  vari- 
ety shows  the  black  red  type,  difficult 
to  describe,  but  familiar  to  everyone  in 
the  Brown  Leghorns.  They  are  quite 
difficult  to  breed  to  Standard  colors. 
Though  not  generally  popular,  they  are 
in  some  localities  quite  extensively  kept 
for  practical  purposes. 

WHITE  COCHINS. — Fig.  60. — BLACK 
Fig.  60.   white  Cochin  Hen.  COCHINS.  —  These   varieties    are    less 

common  than  the  two  foregoing.  White  Cochins  have  yellow  legs  and  skin ; 
Standard  weights  the  same  as  for  the  Buff  and  Partridge.  Black  Cochins  have 
yellow  skin ;  and  legs  black  or  dark  willow.  The  Standard  weights  are  the 
same  as  for  the  other  varieties,  except  cock  10^  Ibs. 


81.      Langshans. —  General  Description. — Fairly    hardy;  dark  brown 
egg   breed — eggs   sometimes   have  a  purplish  tinge;   sitters;    large  medium 

in  size  ;  Standard  weights,  cock  10  Ibs., 
cockerel  8  Ibs.,  hen  7  Ibs.,  pullet  6  Ibs. ; 
medium  sized  single  combs ;  red  ear 


Fig.  61.     Black  Langshan  Cock. 


Fig.  62.    Black  Langshan  Hen. 


PO UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


lobes ;  shanks  and  toes  feathered,  but  not  as  heavily  as  shanks  of  Brahmas  and 
Cochins.  Beaks  dark  horn  color ;  legs  and  toes  bluish  black  ;  bottoms  of  the 
feet  pink  or  pinkish  white.  (Yellow  skin  and  yellow  in  the  bottoms  of  the 
feet  are  considered  indications  of  Cochin  blood).  Langshan  tails  are  larger 
than  those  of  Plymouth  Rocks  and  Wyandottes,  and  carried  well  up. 

BLACK  LANGSHANS.  —  Figs.  61,  62.  —  Are  popular  among  poultry  keepers 
of  all  classes,  except  those  making  a  specialty  of  market  poultry.  Their  white 
skin  and  dark  shanks  are  against  them  in  American  markets.  They  are  partic- 
ularly well  suited  to  smoky  towns  where  white  and  light  colored  birds  soon 
become  eye-sores  to  their  owners.  They  are  good  winter  layers,  and  make 
good  poultry  for  home  use. 

WHITE  LANGSHANS  are  not  popular.  They  are  useful  and  beautiful  fowls, 
but  the  field  for  white  fowls  with  their  general  characteristics  has  been  occupied 
by  other  varieties. 

MEDITERRANEAN  CLASS. 

82.  Leghorns. —  General  Description. — Hardy;  white  egg  breed  ;  non- 
sitters  ;  small  to  small  medium  in 
size ;  no  special  weights  required 
by  the  Standard";  all  varieties  have 
white  or  creamy  white  ear  lobes, 
smooth  yellow  legs,  long  and  full 
tails.  Leghorns  are  reputed  the 
egg  fowls  par  excellence.  More 
people  can  get  satisfactory  egg 
jg  yields  from  Leghorns  than  from 
any  other  breed.  This  is  because 
Leghorns  are  generally  hardier 
than  the  other  white  egg  breeds, 
and  are  not  so  easily  put  out  of 
condition  by  overfeeding  as  are 
fowls  of  heavier  breeds.  There  is 
a  strong  tendency  among  Leghorn 
breeders  to  breed  to  a  larger  type 
than  in  the  past.  When  bred  to 
a  good  size,  Leghorns  make  first 
class  broilers,  and  very  fair  small 
roasters. 

BROWN  LEGHORNS.  —  Fig.  64.  —  There  are  two  sub-varieties  differing  only 
in  shape  of  comb  and  in  popularity.  The  Single  Combed  Brown  Leghorns 
are  the  most  widely  distributed  of  the  Leghorn  family.  Rose  Combed  Brown 
Leghorns  are  not  one-tenth  as  numerous.  Brown  Leghorns  are  the  most  com- 
mon example  of  the  black  red  color  combination  in  fowls — colors  so  familiar 
everywhere  that  they  need  no  general  description.  They  are  commonly  rated 


Fig.  63.    Pair  of  White  Leghorns 


POULTR  T-  CRA  FT. 


Fig.  64.     Brown   Leghorns. 


better  layers  than  the  other 
Leghorns,  tholigh  on  the  av- 
erage their  eggs  are  smaller 
than  those  of  the  White  and 
Buff  varieties.  They  may  be 
said  to  be  both  easy  and  hard 
to  breed.  An  inexperienced 
breeder,  not  versed  in  the 
fine  points  of  the  breed  can 
produce  stock  much  more 
satisfactory  to  himself  than 
would  come  from  his  inex- 
pert matings  of  Barred  Ply- 
mouth Rocks,  or  Silver  Wy- 
andottes.  At  the  same  time 
a  trained  fancier  seeking  to 
produce  the  finest  Standard 
specimens  finds  his  task  hard 
enough  to  give  zest  to  the 
work. 


WHITE  LEGHORNS. — Fig.  63. — There  are  two  sub-varieties,  Single  Combed 
and  Rose  Combed,  having  about  the  same  relative  popularity  as  corresponding 
sub-varieties  of  Brown  Leghorns.  Generally  thought  a  little  less  hardy  than  the 
Browns.  They  average  larger  in  size,  and  lay  larger  eggs.  White  Leghorns 
are  extensively  used  on  the  large  egg  farms  supplying  the  New  York  market. 

BLACK  LEGHORNS. —  Single  Comb. 
Not  very  commonly  bred,  because  una- 
ble to  compete  with  the  Black  Minorcas, 
which  are  in  the  same  class,  and  are 
larger.  The  legs  of  Black  Leghorns 
are  not  clear  yellow,  but  a  yellowish 
black  or  willow. 

BUFF  LEGHORNS.  —  Single  Comb. 
Fig.  65. — The  remarks  regarding  other 
new  buff  varieties  apply  to  this  one. 
The  variety  is  still  in  process  of  making, 
and  will  not  give  satisfaction  to  those 
who  want  to  produce  a  large  propor- 
tion of  high  class  birds,  and  know  what 
a  good  bird  should  be.  For  all  practi- 
cal purposes  they  rival  the  best  stocks 
of  other  varieties  of  Leghorns.  They 
are  not  popular  in  the  broad  sense  of 
the  word,  but  in  view  of  the  increasing  Fig.  65.  Buff  Leghorn 


74 


POULTR  T-  CRAFT. 


Fig.    66.     S.  C.  Buff  Leghorn  Pullet. 


demand  for  buff  fowls,  a  breeder  plan- 
ning for  the  future  may  find  it  profitable 
to  develop  a  stock  of  Buff  Leghorns. 

OTHER  VARIETIES  OF  LEGHORNS 
are  :  — Dominique. —  (Non-Standard), 
rare ;  resembling  Barred  Plymouth 
Rocks  in  color.  Silver  Duckwing. — 
Not  common ;  males  look  much  like 
Brown  Leghorns  in  which  the  red  of 
the  plumage  is  replaced  by  white ; 
females  are  mostly  light  gray ;  light 
salmon  in  front  of  neck  and  breast; 
black  or  dark  brown  predominating  in 
the  tail. 


83.  Minorcas.  —  BLACK  MINORCAS.  —  Fig.  67.  —  Fairly  hardy;  large 
white  egg  breed  ;  non-sitters ;  me- 
dium in  size  ;  Standard  weights, 
cock  8  Ibs.,  cockerel  6%  Ibs., 
hen  6^  Ibs.,  pullet  5^  Ibs. ;  very 
large,  single  combs;  white  or 
creamy  white  ear  lobes ;  white 
skin ;  slate  colored  legs ;  large, 
full  tails.  Minorcas  are  longer 
and  deeper  bodied  than  Leghorns, 
and  have  not  the  wild,  nervous 
disposition  of  fowls  of  that  breed. 
They  are  extra  good  layers  of 
very  large  eggs,  and  make  poul- 
try choice  for  home  use,  but  not 
marketable  at  best  prices.  They 
have  their  greatest  popularity  in 
the  vicinity  of  New  York  and  on 
the  Pacific  coast,  and  in  these 
localities  they  are  bred  to  equal  or 
exceed  Standard  weights ;  but  in 


Fig.  67.     Black  Minorcas. 


many  other  sections  the  Minorcas  generally  are  small,  and  not  to  be  distin- 
guished from  Black  Leghorns. 

WHITE  MINORCAS  —  are  much  less  popular  than  the  Black,  which  they 
resemble  in  every  respect  but  color.  With  all  white  plumage  they  have  beak 
and  legs  pinkish  white. 


84.     Blue   Andalusians.  - 

sitters;  no   Standard   weights. 


non- 


Fairly  hardy;  large  white  egg  breed; 

In   shape   and    size   between  Leghorns  and 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 


75 


Minorcas.  Color  of  plumage, 
light  blue  laced  with  darker 
blue,  except  that  necks,  backs, 
and  tails  in  both  sexes  are  dark 
blue,  and  in  wings  the  flight 
feathers  are  light  blue,  the  rest 
of  the  wing  being  darker  blue. 
The  legs  are  a  slaty  blue.  An- 
dalusians  are  not  popular. 

85.  White  Faced  Black 
Spanish.  —  Fig.  68.  —  Very 
delicate  as  chicks,  but  fairly 
hardy  after  first  few  months ; 
large  white  egg  breed  ;  non-sit- 
ters ;  peculiar  characteristic, 


Fig.  68.     White  Faced  Black  Spanish. 

the  abnormal  development  of  the  skin  of  the 
face,  white  in  color.  In  general  they  resemble 
Black  Minorcas.  Were  once  quite  popular; 
are  now  comparatively  rare. 

86.     Polish. —  Varieties:    WHITE  CRESTED 
BLACK,  GOLDEN  SPANGLED,  (Fig.  69),  GOLD-     *9v 
EN   PENCILED,    SILVER    SPANGLED,    SILVER 
PENCILED,  WHITE,  BUFF  LACED.     With  the  Fig.  69.   Spangled  Polish. 

(By  courtesy  of  D.  Lincoln  Orr). 

exception  of  the  first  and 
last  mentioned  these  varie- 
ties are  sub-divided  into  the 

.  bearded  and  non-bearded. 
Not  one  of  these  varieties  is 
popular  and  common ;  all 

'  are  regarded  as  distinctive- 
ly fanciers'  fowls.  Even 
I  among  fanciers  the  demand 
for  them  is  small.  Only  a 
few  breeders  find  it  profita- 
ble to  handle  them.  They 
are  about  the  size  of  average 

Fig.  70.     Silver  Spangled  Hamburgs.  Leghorns  J      delicate  ;     white 


76 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 


egg  breed ;  non-sitters ;  very  large  crests ;  small  V-shaped  combs ;  white  ear 
lobes ;  slatish  or  willow  legs  ;  large,  full  tails.  They  are  good  layers,  gener- 
ally, and  their  flesh  is  of  fine  quality. 

87.  Hamburgs.  —  Varieties  :  GOLDEN  SPANGLED,  GOLDEN  PENCILED, 
SILVER  SPANGLED,  (Fig.  70),  SILVER  PENCILED,  (Fig.  71),  WHITE,  BLACK. 

Hamburgs  do  not  greatly 
differ  from  the  Polish  except 
in  furnishings  of  the  head. 
They  have  neither  crest  nor 
beard ;  have  rose  combs  like 
those  of  Rose  Combed  Leg- 
horns ;  are  rather  delicate  ;  a 
white  egg  breed  ;  are  non-sit- 
ters ;  more  numerously  bred 
than  Polish,  and  considered 
better  for  practical  purposes, 
but  are  altogether  outclassed 
by  the  hardier  Leghorns. 
Hamburgs  are  bred  princi- 
pally by  those  keeping  fowls 
for  pleasure. 

Fifc.  71.    Silver  Penciled  Hamburg  Cock. 

88.  Redcaps.     Rather  delicate  ;  white  egg  breed  ;  non-sitters  ;  have  been 
aptly  described  as  extra  large,  coarse  Hamburgs  with  red  ear  lobes.     Their 
colors  are  red  brown  and  purple  black  distributed  as  in  Spangled  Hamburgs, 
except  that  the  spangles  of  Redcaps  are  crescent  shaped.     Rare. 

FRENCH  CLASS. 

89.  Houdans.  — Fig.  72.  —  The  only  breed  in  this  class  common  enough 
in  America  to  warrant  de- 
scription in  a  popular  book. 

The  other  French  breeds,  LA 
FLECHE  and  CREVECCEUR, 
recognized  by  the  Standard, 
are  rarely  seen  here.  Hou- 
dans, while  not  popular  or 
numerous,  are  fairly  well 
distributed,  and  are  not  unfa- 
miliar in  most  sections  ;  they 
are  a  rather  delicate,  white 
egg  breed ;  non-sitters ;  col- 
ors black  and  white  mottled, 
black  predominating  in  the 
young  fowls ;  large  crests  Fig.  72.  Houdans. 


ngg 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


77 


and  beards  ;  V"shaped,  leaf-like  combs  ;  white  ear  lobes  ;  shanks  pinkish  while 
mottled  with  black,  five  toes  on  each  foot ;  are  good  layers,  equaling  Leg- 
horns in  dry  sunny  situations ;  make  good  poultry,  not  suited  to  American 
markets  because  of  its  color.  Standard  weights,  cock  7  Ibs.,  cockerel  6  Ibs., 
hen  6  Ibs.,  pullet  5  Ibs. 

ENGLISH   CLASS. 

90.      Dorkings. — A  delicate  (except  on  a  large,  well  drained  range)  meat 

breed ;  inferior  layers  of  eggs  of  medi- 
um color  and  size  ;  sitters  ;  bodies  long, 
wide,  deep  ;  five  toes  on  each  foot. 

WHITE  DORKINGS. —  Fig.  73. — The 
Standard  weights  are:  cock  7^  Ibs., 
cockerel  6^  Ibs.,  hen  6  ibs.,  pullet  5 
Ibs. ;  rose  comb  ;  red  ear  lobes. 


Fig.  73.     White  Dorking  Hen. 
(By   courtesy  of  "Poultry,"  England). 


SILVER  GRAY  DORKINGS. — Fig.  74. 
Standard  weights,  cock  8  Ibs.,  cockerel 
7  Ibs.,  hen  6^  Ibs.,  pullet  5^  Ibs.; 
single  combs  ;  ear  lobes,  red  preferred  ; 
in  color  resemble  Duck  wing  Leghorns. 

COLORED  DORKINGS.  -  -  Standard 
weights,  cock  9  Ibs.,  cockerel  8  Ibs., 
hen  7  Ibs.,  pullet  6  Ibs. ;  combs  either 
single  or  rose  ;  red  ear  lobes  preferred  ; 
colors  richer  and  deeper  than  in  the  last 

named  variety,  the  white  of  which  is  replaced  by  a  straw  color  tending  to 

black  red.     Colored  Dorkings  are  bred 

to  a  fixed  type  only  in  shape. 


91.  Orpingtons. — A  new  English 
breed.  Hardy;  general  purpose  fowl. 
The  breed  was  made  especially  for 
practical  purposes,  to  produce  eggs  and 
meat.  American  breeders  interested 
in  fowls  of  that  class,  and  disposed  to 
experiment  with  Orpingtons  are  advised 
that  such  experiments  are  not  apt  to 
prove  profitable.  Without  disparaging 
this  breed  at  all  it  may  be  said  that  it 
cannot  compete  here  with  the  Ameri- 
can breeds  of  the  same  general  class. 
Poultry  keepers  who  want  a  good  prac- 
tical fowl  different  from  anything  their 


Fig.  74.    Silver  Gray  Dorking  Cock. 


78 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 


neighbors  have,  a  consideration  with  some  who  keep  poultry  for  pleasure,  can 
get  it  in  the  Orpington.  There  are  three  established  varieties: — BLACK, 
WHITE,  and  BUFF.  In  each  variety  there  are  single  combed  and  rose  combed 
sub-varieties. 


GAMES. 

92.  Exhibition  Games. —  Fig.  75. —  Pit  Games.  —  There  are  two  dis- 
tinct types  of  Game  fowls.  The  exhibi- 
tion type  is  a  bird  very  long  in  legs  and 
neck,  with  stilted,  crane-like  carriage. 
The  Pit  Game  is  shorter  in  the  leg,  heavier 
in  body,  and  a  much  better  fowl  for  prac- 
tical purposes.  In  sections  where  cock- 
fighting  still  prevails  flocks  of  Games  are 
kept  for  domestic  purposes  quite  as  often 
as  flocks  of  any  other  breed.  They  are 
rated  hardy ;  average  layers  of  white  or 
tinted  eggs ;  are  sitters  ;  flesh  makes  fairly 
good  poultry,  but  a  trifle  hard.  Games 
cannot  be  considered  as  rivals  of  popular 
economic  breeds.  The  color  types  in  Pit 
Games  are  not  well  defined.  They  can 
hardly  be  classed  as  varieties.  The  Stand- 
ard varieties  of  Exhibition  Games  are : 


Fijf.  75.     Exhibition  Game  Cock. 
(By  courtesy  of  A.  E.  Blunck). 


BLACK  BREASTED  RED,  BROWN  RED,  GOLDEN  DUCKWING,  SILVER  DUCK- 
WING,  RED  PYLE,  WHITE,  BLACK,  and  BIRCHEN. 


93.     Cornish  Indian   Games.  —  Not 

very  hardy ;  meat  breed  ;  they  are  ordinary 
to  poor  layers  of  tinted  eggs ;  sitters  ;  pea 
combs ;  red  ear  lobes ;  yellow  skin  and 
legs  ;  Standard  weights,  cock  9  Ibs.,  cock- 
erel yy2  Ibs.,  hen  6^  Ibs.,  pullet  5^  Ibs. ; 
are  very  full  in  the  breast,  and  broad  at 
the  shoulders;  back,  convex  instead  of 
flat  or  concave,  as  in  most  other  breeds. 
There  are  two  varieties,  the  DARK,  (Fig. 
76),  and  the  WHITE,  (Fig.  77); — the 
former,  in  color,  a  very  dark  black  red 
(crimson)  ;  the  Standard  requires  in  the 
female  plumage  with  bay  ground  double 
—  or  triple  —  laced  with  black.  Usually 
these  markings  are  not  well  defined. 


Fiflf.  76.     Dark  Indian  Game  Hen. 
(By  courtesy  of  Adam  Thompson). 


POULTRT-CRAFT.  ,    79 

94.  Malay  Games. — Nearly  as  large  as  Indian  Games ;  distinctive  char- 
acteristics : —  comb,  a  knob  resembling  a 
strawberry,  dark  red  or  purple  in  color ; 
and  fierce  expression  due  to  breadth  of 
skull  over  the  eyes  ;  color  black  red,  very 
dark  ;  a  fanciers'  fowl ;  rare. 

95.  Miscellaneous  Breeds. — In  this 
class  the  American  Standard  of  Perfection 
places  breeds  prized  mostly  as  novelties. 

RUSSIANS.  —  Black  ;  bearded,  but  not 
crested  ;  medium  size  ;  rose  comb  without 
a  spike. 

SUMATRAS.  —  Black  ;  heavy,  drooping 
tails  ;  dark  red  pea  combs. 

SILKIES. — Characteristic  feature  :  web- 
Fig.  77.    White  Indian  Game  Cock.  .     .     ...        ..        . 

(By  courtesy  of  E.  M.  &  W.  Ferguson).  less,  hair-like  feathers. 

SULTANS.  —  Resemble  Bearded  White  Polish,    but  are  smaller,  and  have 
feathered  legs. 

FRIZZLES. — Have  feathers  curled  backwards  at  the  ends. 
RUMPLESS.  —  Tailless  fowls. 

96.  Foreign  Breeds.  —  New  Breeds.  —  In  nearly  every  foreign  country 
there  are  distinct  breeds,  popular  there,  which  have  no  particular  interest  for 
the  American  poultry  keeper  because  not  suited  to  any  general  demand  in  this 
country.     New  breeds  and  varieties  are  continually  coming  up  here,   most  of 
them  being  boomed  by  the  manufacturers  for  a  little  while,  and  then  going  to 
a  deserved  oblivion.     Beginners  and  plain  poultry  men  should  avoid   new  and 
rare  breeds.     Not  one  in  ten  will  "  go"  with  the  buying  public,  and  nearly 
always  those  who  take  them  up  lose  money  on  them. 

97.  Complete  Descriptions  of  nearly  all  varieties  of  fowls  are  given  in 
the  American  Standard  of  Perfection,  a  book  which  ought  to  be  in  the  hands 
of  everyone  who   keeps  pure  bred  fowls.     Its   descriptions  are   in    skeleton 
form,  but   thoroughly  cover    the    ground.     Other   books  of   great   value   to 
breeders  are  mentioned  in  the  bibliography  of  poultry  literature  at  the  end 
of  this  volume.     Complete  descriptions  cannot  be  given  in  a  book  like  this, 
because  in  the  first  place  they  require  a  volume  instead   of  a  chapter ;  and,  in 
the  second  place,  the  American  Standard  of  Perfection,  being  the  only  general 
standard  having  the  common  indorsement,  by  usage,  of  poultrymen,  complete 
descriptions  would  necessarily  be  based  on  it,  and   would  have  to  be  mere 


So  POULTRY-  CRA  FT. 

juggles  of  words  to  avoid  infringement  of  its  copyright.  While  the  Standard 
was  subject  to  revision  every  five  years,  many  small  breeders  felt  it  a  hardship 
to  buy  a  book  which  might  soon  be  of  no  value.  Now  that  the  Standard  is 
practically  a  permanent  one,  they  may  purchase  it  confident  that  changes 
made  in  future  will  not  make  obsolete  the  book  they  possess. 

98.  Abbreviations  of  Names  of  Varieties. —  The  abbreviations  used  in 
poultry  papers  and  by  poultrymen  in  correspondence  often  puzzle  those  not 
familiar  with  the  names  of  varieties.  Abbreviations  are  sometimes  partial, 
sometimes  complete.  The  most  common  are :  Light  Brahma,  Lt.  Brahma, 
or  L.  B.;  Partridge  Cochin,  P.  Cochin,  or  P.  C.  In  names  of  Plymouth 
Rock  varieties  the  Plymouth  is  often  omitted,  and  sometimes  the  breed  is 
spoken  of  simply  as  Rocks.  Fully  abbreviated,  Barred  Plymouth  Rock 
becomes  B.  P.  R.;  White  Plymouth  Rock,  W.  P.  R.;  Buff  Plymouth 
Rock,  Bf.  P.  R.  (The  advent  of  some  of  the  new  buff  breeds  has  caused 
confusion  in  some  minds,  as,  for  instance,  whether  B.  P.  R.  referred  to 
Barred  or  to  Buff  Plymouth  Rocks ;  B.  Leghorn,  to  Brown  or  to  Buff  Leg- 
horn. In  all  cases  of  this  kind,  common  usage  gives  the  abbreviation  to  the 
name  of  the  variety  for  which  it  was  first  used,  and  puts  the  distinguishing  mark 
on  the  abbreviation  of  the  new  name).  The  word  Wyandotte  is  abbreviated 
to  Wy.,  W.,  or  to  'Dottes.  Silver  Wyandotte  is  abbreviated  to  S.  Wy. ; 
Golden  Wyandotte,  to  G.  Wy.;  White  Wyandotte,  to  W.  Wy.  S.  C. 
B.  L.,  stands  for  Single  Comb  Brown  Leghorn;  S .  C.  W.  Z.,  for  Single 
Comb  White  Leghorn;  R.  C.  stands  for  Rose  Comb.  W.  C.  B.  P.  is 
the  abbreviation  for  White  Crested  Black  Polish;  G.  S.  H.,  for  Golden 
Spangled  Hamburg;  S.  P.  H.,  for  Silver  Penciled  Hamburg;  S.  G.  D.,  for 
Silver  Gray  Dorking ;  B.  B.  R.  G.,  for  Black  Breasted  Red  Game  ;  C.  I.  G., 
for  Cornish  Indian  Game  —  usually  applied  only  to  the  dark  variety  ;  B.  M., 
for  Black  Minorca,  etc. 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAF7\  81 


CHAPTER   VI. 


Choosing  a  Variety. —  Buying  Stock. 

99.  One  Variety  or  More.  —  "For  best  results,  keep  but  one  variety," 
say  most  experienced  poultrymen.  Few  practice  what  they  preach.  It  is 
not  surprising,  then,  that  their  example  has  more  weight  than  their  precept. 
For  most  of  those  who  keep  fowls,  one  variety  is  enough.  For  many  who 
want  an  income  from  poultry,  one  variety  is  not  enough.  "Circumstances 
alter  cases."  The  general  rule  should  be:  —  A  flock  (large  or  small)  should 
not  contain  fowls  of  different  varieties.  The  application  of  this  rule  would 
settle  the  question  for  most  poultry  keepers.  For  the  others,  a  good  rule  is  : — 
As  many  varieties  should  be  kept  as  are  needed  to  supply,  to  the  limit  of  the 
capacity  of  a  plant,  the  paying  demand  for  its  special  products.  One  may 
be  enough.  Even  in  an  extreme  case,  it  is  not  probable  that  more  than  three 
or  four  will  be  needed. 

An  error  market  poultrymen  ought  to  avoid  is :  —  keeping  two  or  three 
varieties  or  breeds  which,  practically,  fill  the  same  bill.  It  does  not  often 
happen  that  more  than  one  variety  is  needed  for  an  exclusive  market  poultry 
plant.  A  market  poultryman  who  sells  some  stock  for  breeding  purposes 
does  not  always  find  the  demand  for  stock  of  his  breeding,  of  one  variety, 
large  enough  to  take  all  his  surplus.  By  using  two  or  more  varieties,  he  can 
get  the  same  results  in  the  market  branch  of  his  business,  and,  being  in  a 
position  to  supply  a  more  varied  demand,  may  sell  a  larger  proportion  of  his 
stock  at  the  prices  obtained  for  breeders.  Thus  his  increased  sales  of  breeding 
stock  would  justify  the  expense  of  maintaining  breeding  stocks  of  several 
varieties. 

Except  in  the  rare  event  of  his  having  made  a  national  reputation  with  a 
popular  variety,  a  breeder-fancier  needs  several  varieties.  Even  as  a  beginner, 
it  is  better  that  he  should  keep  a  varied  stock.  The  results  of  his  matings  for 
the  first  few  years  are,  if  good,  apt  to  be  happy  chances.  Having  several 
varieties,  he  will  hardly  fail  to  do  fairly  well  with  at  least  one  of  them. 
When  a  breeder's  matings  all  disappoint  him,  his  season's  work  is  a  total 
failure.  Besides  this,  the  beginner's  position  as  a  seller  of  good  stock,  is  like 
that  of  the  market  poultryman  who  uses  several  varieties  to  better  advantage 
than  one.  It  would  on  the  face  of  the  matter  seem  wisest  for  the  breeder  to 
begin  with  one  variety,  adding  others  as  he  found  demand  for  them,  and  as 
his  skill  in  breeding  increased ;  but,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  takes  less  skill  to 
breed  several  varieties  to  a  fair  degree  of  excellence  than  to  breed  one  variety 
to  very  high  excellence. 


82  PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 

100.  Testing  Varieties.— How   to   Get   Satisfactory    Stock.— It  is 

only  when  one  is  no  longer  a  novice  that  he  is  able  to  see  clearly  the  absurdity 
of  a  beginner  keeping  a  number  of  varieties  to  test  their  merit,  or  to  find  out 
which  he  likes  best.  The  general  experience  of  poultry  keepers  is  the  best 
gauge  of  the  relative  merits  of  the  breeds.  The  owner  of  several  varieties 
usually  comes  to  prefer  that  which  is  giving  him  best  results.  In  buying 
stock  of  several  varieties,  one  is  not  likely  to  get  a  uniform  quality  in  all.  It 
may  easily  happen  that  because  he  chanced  to  get  extra  good  stock  of  an 
inferior,  and  poor  stock  of  a  superior  variety,  his  short  experience  will  lead 
him  to  prefer  the  one  which  in  the  long  run  gives  poor  results.  Before  decid- 
ing on  a  variety  one  should  know  its  general  character  well  enough  to  be  sure 
that  representative  average  specimens  of  that  variety  are  fowls  well  suited  to 
his  purpose.  Then  if  the  fowls  of  the  first  purchase  do  not  realize  expecta- 
tions, and  it  is  evident  that  the  fault  is  with  the  stock — not  in  his  manage- 
ment—  let  him  try  again,  and  again.  It  is  not  the  variety  that  is  now  on 
trial ;  it  is  the  breeders  of  the  variety.  Stock  of  the  kind  wanted  will  be 
found  more  quickly  and  at  less  cost  by  limiting  the  search  to  the  breeders  of  a 
single  variety,  than  by  extending  it  to  the  breeders  of  all  varieties. 

101.  Breeds  for  the  Market  Poultryman. —  The  market  poultryman 
must  have  the  fowls  that  yield  the  largest,  best  distributed  (through  the  year) , 
and  surest  returns  when   the  products  are  sold    at    market    prices.     Certain 
small  "outs"  in  some  varieties,  of  small  moment  to  those  who  sell  a  con- 
siderable part  of  their  stock  at  high  prices  for  breeding  or  exhibition  purposes, 
are  not  to  be  tolerated  by  the  marketman.     His  business  affords  few  opportu- 
nities for  making  large  profits  on  a  few  sales  compensate  for  small   profits  — 
or  perhaps  losses  —  on  many  sales.      Quick  sales  at  living  profits,  must  be 
the  market  poultryman's  watchword.     He    must   aim    to  have  every  article 
produced  of  a  kind  and  grade  always  salable  —  convertible  into  cash  at  any  time. 

The  first  point  to  consider  is  the  demand  of  the  market  to  be  supplied. 

In  most  of  the  markets  of  this  country  strictly  fresh  eggs  bring  one  price  — 
regardless  of  color  of  the  shell.  In  New  York  and  vicinity  white  eggs ;  in 
Boston  and  vicinity,  brown  eggs  are  preferred.  In  nearly  all  American  cities 
yellow  legged,  yellow  skinned  poultry  finds  readiest  sale.  Everywhere  the 
most  active  demand  for  grown  fowls  calls  for  carcasses  of  four  to  five  pounds 
each,  and  the  demand  for  fowls  dressing  six  pounds  or  over,  or  under  four 
pounds,  is  comparatively  light.* 

A  market  poultryman  sending  produce  to  New  York,  will  find  that  the 
trade  wants  large  white  eggs ;  is  not  particular  about  the  color  of  the  skin  or 
legs  of  poultry.  The  popular  varieties  laying  large  white  eggs  are,  Brown 
and  White  Leghorns,  Black  Minorcas,  with  Buff  Leghorns  and,  possibly, 

*NOTE. —  This  demand  for  medium  sized  fowls  is  not  in  any  way  dependent  upon,  or 
governed  by,  the  quality  of  the  meat.  Medium  sized  fowls  are  in  demand  because  they 
are  of  the  size  wanted  by  the  greatest  number  of  buyers. 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRA  FT.  83 

Houdans,  entitled  to  mention,  (in  that  section).  It  will  be  found  that  these 
varieties  are  relatively  more  popular  in  the  country  tributary  to  New  York 
city  than  elsewhere ;  —  the  three  first  named  being  those  preferred  by  the 
large  egg  farmers.  A  beginner  will  do  better  to  profit  by  their  experience 
than  to  be  governed  by  his  personal  preferences  should  they  run  counter  to 
common  experience. 

A  market  poultryman  locating  near  Boston,  will  find  Barred  Plymouth 
Rocks,  White  Wyandottes,  and  White  Plymouth  Rocks  most  popular  among 
market  poultrymen  using  thoroughbred  fowls.  These  varieties  best  fill  the 
requirements  of: — brown  eggs,  fitness  for  market  at  any  age,  and  ease  of 
preparation  for  market.  He  will  find  other  varieties  of  the  American  and 
Asiatic  classes  often  used  by  poultrymen,  but  not  to  anything  like  the  extent 
those  especially  mentioned  are  used. 

The  egg  farmers  of  the  Pacific  coast  seem  to  prefer  hens  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean class,  saying  their  climate  is  particularly  well  suited  to  such  fowls. 

The  poultryman  who  wishes  to  build  up  a  profitable  trade  must  cater  to  the 
special  demands  of  his  market.  If  it  were  not  for  these  demands  there  would 
be  no  business  for  the  special  egg  and  poultry  farmer.  As  has  been  said, 
there  is  more  than  enough  stock  produced  to  fill  the  demand  for  inferior 
poultry  of  all  sizes,  as  well  as  for  stock  of  good  quality,  but  not  of  the  sizes 
and  colors  in  demand.  Popular  preferences  for  certain  colors  cf  skin  and 
shell  are  mere  prejudices ;  but  it  is  the  poultryman's  business  to  supply  what 
the  people  want,  not  to  try  to  persuade  them  to  want  something  else.  When 
selecting  his  stock  he  must  take  varieties  that  will  enable  him  to  supply  the 
demands  most  satisfactorily,  and  with  greatest  profit. 

102.  Breeds  for  Profit,  (Economic),  on  a  Small  Scale.— While  the 
varieties  recommended  in  the  preceding  section  are  the  best  suited  to  exclusive 
market  poultrying,  many,  even  in  the  localities  mentioned,  who  keep  small 
flocks  of  poultry  for  profit  (as  an  adjunct  to  another  business)  find  other 
varieties  just  as  profitable.  Then  if  their  taste  prefers  another  variety  it  is  a 
satisfaction  to  be  able  to  gratify  it  without  sacrificing  profits.  In  a  "  brown 
egg"  locality  a  poultry  keeper  whose  fowls  produce  white  eggs  can  easily  find 
customers  to  take  white  eggs  of  best  quality  at  the  same  price  as  brown  eggs 
—  but  this  trade  is  limited.  The  same  thing  is  true  of  Langshan,  Houdan, 
and  Minorca  poultry,  and  of  the  extra  large  carcasses  of  Brahmas  and 
Cochins.  In  every  line  of  poultry  production  it  is  a  frequent  occurrence  that 
a  man  handling  a  small  quantity  of  a  certain  kind  of  goods  finds  the  trade 
satisfactory,  which  on  increasing  his  stock  he  finds  that  he  has  passed  the 
limit  of  the  demand  for  his  produce,  and  the  surplus  moves  slowly  in  the  open 
market.  This  phase  of  the  subject  is  of  most  importance  to  those  who, 
having  been  successful  on  a  small  scale,  are  about  to  give  their  whole  time  to 
poultry.  If  the  stock  they  have  been  using  is  not  adapted  to  the  market  to 
which  their  increased  output  must  go,  the  stock  should  be  changed. 


84  POUL  77?  r-  CRAFT. 

103.  Breeds  for  a  Breeder. —  One  whose  object  is  to  do,  ultimately,  a 
general  poultry  business,  a  principal  feature   of  which   shall   be  the  sale   of 
exhibition  and  breeding  stock,  wishes,  of  course,  to  acquire  special  knowledge 
of  the  breeds  he  is  to  handle,  at  the  same  time  that  he  is  gaining  practical 
general  knowledge  of  the  care  of  fowls,  the  principles  of  breeding,  and  build- 
ing up  his  stock.     Where  there  is  already  an  established  trade  in  high  class 
stock  it  is  easy  to   learn  which  varieties  are  readily  salable,  and  it  is  well  for 
the  beginner,  especially  if  his  means  are  small,  to  select  some  of  the  varieties 
most  popular  in  his  vicinity.     Under    such    conditions    a    man  with   enough 
knowledge  of  fowls  to  be  able  to  keep  them  in  health  would,  probably,  find  it 
best  in  the  long  run  to  begin  with  first  class  stock,  and  each  year  secure  expert 
advice  in  selecting  and  mating  his  breeding  pens  —  until  the  time  comes  when 
he  can  rely  on  his  own  judgment  of  the  stock.     All  popular  varieties  are  well 
adapted  to  this  kind  of  poultry  keeping  ;   though  because  of  differences  in  local 
popularity  all  are  not  equally  suited  to  all  localities.     A  very  correct  idea  of 
the  relative   popularity  of  the  varieties  in  any  section  may  be  had  from  the 
advertisements   of  breeders   in  that  section,  from  the  classes  in   the    poultry 
shows,  and  from  the  statements  of  those  familiar  with  the  business. 

Another  point  to  consider  in  this  connection  is  the  basis  of  the  popularity  of 
a  variety.  Permanent  popularity  is  always  based  on  economic  merit.  If  a 
popular  variety  fails  there,  avoid  it.  Its  popularity  is  sure  to  be  transient.  In 
localities  where  thoroughbred  fowls  are  not  common,  buyers  are  more  eager 
to  have  stock  of  a  kind  different  from  that  of  their  neighbors  than  to  have 
better  stock  of  the  same  kind.  The  spirit  of  rivalry  and  competition,  which  is 
the  basis  of  high  prices  for  thoroughbred  stock,  is  not  developed  until  people 
begin  to  be  able  to  compare  Standard  merits.  Under  such  circumstances  the 
wisest  plan  is  to  begin  with  fairly  good  birds, —  a  good  assortment  of  the 
varieties  most  universally  popular, —  and  to  sell  this  class  of  stock  until  it 
begins  to  appear  what  varieties  are  destined  to  attain  local  popularity ;  then 
the  breeder  should  make  a  special  study  of  those  varieties,  secure  some  first 
class  stock,  and  prepare  to  meet  the  demand. 

104.  Non-Popular  Fowls  to  be  Avoided. —  Beginners  generally  should 
avoid  the  non-popular  varieties.     For  nearly  all  these  fowls  there  is  a  limited 
demand,  filled  for  the  most  part  by  a  few  breeders  of  long  established  reputa- 
tion.    A  profitable  trade  in  such  varieties  is  very  hard  to  build  up.     New 
breeders  also  need  to  guard  against  being  influenced  by  occasional  demands 
for  varieties  they  do  not  keep.     It  has  happened  that  two  or  three  inquiries 
coming  at  about  the  same  time  have  led  new  breeders  to  put  in  stocks  of  birds 
for  which  there  was  no  sale.     Most  of  the  (apparent)  demand  for  non-popular 
varieties  is  what  may  be  called  a  "  fictitious  demand,"  coming  principally  from 
persons  who  have  no  intention  of  buying. 

105.  What  Most  Breeders  Can  Do. —  Extra  fine  exhibition  stock  always 
brings  ubig"  prices,  especially  in  the  popular  varieties  difficult  to  breed  to 


PO UL  TR r-  CRAFT.  85 

Standard  requirements.  These  prices  have  no  relation  to,  are  not  at  all 
dependent  upon,  the  practical  qualities  of  the  fowls.  To  build  up  a  large  and 
permanent  trade  in  stock  of  lower  Standard  merit,  it  is  necessary  that  the  stock 
should  be  useful  as  well  as  beautiful.  There  is  a  large  class  of  buyers  who 
select  for  superficial  excellence,  first,  but  are  not  long  satisfied  with  such  lack 
of  useful  qualities  as  is  sometimes  found  in  high  class  stock.  This  class  of 
buyers  is  smaller  than  the  next  to  be  mentioned,  but  its  members  are  willing 
to  pay  much  better  prices  for  what  they  buy,  and  their  patronage  is,  volume 
for  volume,  more  profitable.  The  largest  demand  is  for  fowls  bred  especially 
for  practical  purposes,  yet  not  noticeably  deficient  in  Standard  shape  and  color 
requirements.  Most  of  the  buyers  of  such  fowls  cannot  and  will  not  pay 
"  fancy"  prices.  It  is  this  last  demand  that  most  poultrymen  are  capable  of 
filling.  The  production  of  the  finest  Standard  fowls  requires  a  combination 
of  artistic  perception  and  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  breeding  comparatively 
rare.  The  production  of  fowls  whose  chief  merits  are  measured  by  the  dozen 
and  the  pound,  does  not  require  extraordinary  artistic  faculty.  The  mediocre 
talent  which  most  of  those  who  find  fowls  interesting  possess,  fits  them  to 
supply  first  the  demand  for  good  practical  stock,  afterwards  the  demand  for 
fair  exhibition  stock  of  good  practical  worth, —  and  this  last  demand  will  bring 
them  the  cream  of  their  profit. 

106.  Selecting  a  Breed  for  the  Farm. —  A  farmer  —  or  farmeress — 
keeping  fowls  under  the  conditions  found  on  the  ordinary  farm,  wants  fowls 
that  will  rustle,  will  go  out  into  the  fields  and  meadows  and  pick  a  part  of 
their  living.  He  wants  a  breed  that  is  not  in  any  way  an  oddity.  To  him 
large  crests,  and  heavily  feathered  legs,  and  monstrous  combs  are  objectionable, 
because  he  does  not  see  that  they  serve  any  useful  purpose.  He  feels  that  such 
superfluities  are  out  of  place  on  the  farm.  As  on  most  farms  chickens  are 
hatched  and  reared  in  the  natural  way,  the  farmer's  hens  must,  usually,  be 
sitters.  It  is  generally  of  some  importance,  too,  that  the  surplus  poultry  be  of 
good  market  quality.  So  that  of  pure  bred  fowls,  the  varieties  of  Plymouth 
Rocks,  and  Wyandottes,  and  after  them,  White  Wonders,  and  Rhode  Island 
Reds,  are  the  most  suitable  for  general  farm  flocks. 

On  farms  where  poultry,  without  being  a  leading  feature,  is  still  a  specialty, 
the  nature  of  that  specialty  may  lead  to  the  selection  of  a  variety  not  in  the 
general  purpose  class.  Asiatics  are  prime  favorites  on  farms  which  make 
something  of  a  specialty  of  large  roasters.  Many  farmers  whose  poultry 
furnishes  the  greater  part  of  their  fresh  meat  in  summer,  prefer  Asiatics, 
because  no  other  fowl  is  large  enough  to  "  make  a  meal."  On  some  farms 
Leghorns  are  preferred,  because  eggs  are  secured  from  them  with  less  trouble 
than  from  any  other  breed,  they  continuing  to  lay  well  for  three  or  four  years, 
while  heavier  fowls,  kept  under  the  same  conditions,  would  become  overfat 
and  unproductive  after  their  first  annual  moult.  Just  because  the  Leghorns 
lay  well  for  several  years,  it  may  be  possible  to  keep  a  stock  of  several  hundred 
layers  on  a  farm,  where  if  nearly  the  whole  stock  had  to  be  renewed  yearly, 


86  POUL  TR  r-  CRA  FT. 

not  half  that  number  could  be  kept.  To  many  farmers  the  kind  of  poultry 
their  stock  makes  is  of  little  consequence,  provided  the  hens  lay  plenty  of 
eggs.  For  in  many  places  where  eggs  are  as  good  as  cash  at  the  grocery, 
marketing  poultry  profitably  is,  for  a  farmer  who  comes  to  town  but  once  a 
week,  and  then  has  only  a  few  hours  in  which  to  do  a  score  of  errands,  a 
mighty  troublesome  problem. 

107.  Fowls  for  the  Village. — When  fowls  are  kept  on  large  village 
lots,  farm  conditions  are  reproduced  on  a  small  scale,  and  the   considerations 
affecting  the  choice  of  a  breed  are  nearly  the  same.     Fowls  that  roam  widely 
are  more  objectionable   in  these  relatively  narrow  quarters  than  on  a  large 
farm,  for  here  they  are  continually  trespassing.     A  right  minded  poultryman 
will  not  permit  his  fowls  to  annoy  his  neighbors.     When  it  is  desired  to  give 
the  fowls  liberty  as  long  as  they  remain  "  at  home,"  the  Asiatic  and  American 
varieties  are  preferable  ;  an  ordinary  fence  will  keep  them  within  bounds.     If 
the  fowls  while  confined  can  be  given  ample  yard  room,  the  additional  cost  of 
higher  fences  for  the  high  flyers  is  not  so  great  as  to  overbalance  a  possible 
preference  of  the  poultryman  for  one  of  the  smaller  breeds. 

108.  Breeds   for   Close   Quarters.— For   a   City    Lot.— Nearly   all 

varieties  do  well  in  confinement  if  well  cared  for.  Because  of  their  contented 
dispositions  Asiatic  are  best  adapted  to  close  confinement.  Nervous,  restless 
fowls  are  more  apt  to  acquire  such  vices  as  feather  pulling  and  egg  eating,  and 
to  cause  trouble  by  frequently  breaking  bounds.  Minorcas  and  Houdans  will 
generally  take  more  kindly  to  narrow  yards  than  will  Leghorns.  Though 
contentment  in  confinement  is  to  some  degree  a  matter  of  training  and  habit, 
chicks  that  are  reared  in  confinement  are  not  fretted  by  it  as  are  those  which 
have  had  free  range. 

Black  and  dark  fowls  are  best  suited  to  city  lots,  where  there  is  much  smoke 
and  soot. 

109.  Breeds  for   Fanciers. —  The  choice  of  a  breed,  or  breeds,  for  a 
fancier  must  depend  much  on  the  nature  of  the  pleasure  sought.     If  it  is  the 
pleasure  of  possession  of  a  uniform  flock  of  handsome  fowls,  the  novice-fancier 
should  choose  a  well  established  variety  easy  to  breed.     He  does  not  want  to 
be  obliged  to   rear  a  large   flock  in  order  to  get  a  few  that  he  will  not  be 
ashamed  to  show.     The   difficulties  in  breeding  which  made  a  variety  objec- 
tionable to  that  one  would  make  it  suitable  for  another,  who  sought  pleasure 
in  the  development  of  skill  in  producing  rare   specimens.     A  fancier  who 
wants  oddities   can   make  choice  of  a  variety  much   more  easily  than  he  can 
learn  where  to  buy  stock  —  so   rarely  are  the  oddities   met  in  poultry  yards. 
One  who  wishes  a  collection  of  a  small  number  of  each  variety  of  a  breed  finds 
the   breeds    most   numerously   sub-divided  just   what  he    wants.     Many   find 
pleasure,  and  some  profit,  in  the   production  and  development  of  new  breeds 
and  varieties,  or  the  development  of  new  types  of  old  varieties.     This  pleasure 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT.  87 

of  the  fancier  is  only  completely  rounded  out  when  he  sees  his  creations- 
becoming  popular.  For  this  it  is  necessary  that  he  should  not  work  at  randomy 
but  with  definite  ends  in  view,  and  a  full  realization  of  the  style  and  quality  of 
fowl  likely  to  please  and  gain  favor.  The  maker  of  new  breeds  needs  to  be 
very  familiar  with  the  old  ones,  and  also  to  have  a  comprehensive  view  of  the 
conditions  and  tendencies  of  the  poultry  world. 

110.  Buying  Stock. —  Some  General  Observations. —  It  is  presumed 
that  one  who  has  studied  the  subject  thus  far  knows  what  kind  of  stock  he 
needs.  That  is  the  kind  of  stock  he  should  buy.  If  he  wants  to  produce  first 
rate  stock  of  any  kind  he  cannot  do  it  from  second  rate  (or  worse)  stock.  It 
is  folly  in  most  cases  to  grade  up  inferior  stock.  It  is  to  refuse  to  accept  in 
yW/the  results  of  the  work  of  the  best  breeders.  Most  of  those  who  do  this 
make  the  plea  that  they  cannot  afford  to  buy  better  stock.  Whatever  the 
object  a  poultryman  has  in  view,  he  cannot  afford  to  buy  stock  other  than 
the  best  suited  to  that  object.* 

The  trouble  with  most  new  breeders  is,  they  are  too  eager  to  begin  selling 
stock  before  they  have  produced  it.  They  are  not  satisfied  to  begin*with  just 
enough  breeding  birds  of  best  quality  to  hatch  their  own  chicks.  They  must 
sell  eggs  for  hatching  from  the  start. 

Suppose  a  man  has  ten  passably  good  pullets  of  a  popular  variety  —  worth 
one  dollar  each.  He  wants  to  grade  up  his  stock  with  the  ultimate  object  of 
producing  first  class  breeding  and  exhibition  birds.  He  pays  ten- dollars  for  a 
male  to  mate  with  these  ten  females,  expecting  to  get  a  number  of  chickens 
worth  five  to  ten  dollars  each,  few  worth  less  than  two  dollars.  He  may  raise 
three  to  four  hundred  chicks  in  a  single  season  from  that  pen,  and  the  prob- 
ability is  that  after  a  season  of  hard  work  he  will  have  not  a  single  chick  worth 
five  dollars,  very  few  worth  as  much  as  two  dollars,  and  the  most  no  better 
than  the  parent  hens.  If  he  has  sold  eggs  from  such  a  mating,  he  has  done 
his  prospective  business  more  harm  than  good. 

Now  if,  instead,  he  had  sold  the  ten  pullets  for  ten  dollars,  and  invested 
that  amount  in  two  hens  of  good  quality,  and  bred  on  the  right  lines  to  mate 
with  the  male,  he  could,  with  "good  luck,"  raise  sixty  to  eighty  chicks,  more 
than  half  of  which  would  be  better  than  the  best  from  the  other  mating.  Just 
so  in  breeding  for  eggs,  or  meat,  or  any  other  feature.  The  beginner  should 
always  start  with  stock  best  for  his  purpose, —  whatever  that  may  be. 

Except  for  those  who  wish  to  breed  exhibition  stock  of  finest  quality,  it  is 
not  necessary  to  pay  long  prices.  Nor  are  the  prices  asked  for  the  stock  of 
fair  to  medium  quality  usually  purchased  by  amateurs,  market  poultrymen, 
and  farmers,  as  exorbitant  as  a  novice  is  inclined  to  think  them.  The  usual 
prices  for  such  stock  are  low,  rather  than  high,  as  one  finds  when  he  begins  to 
sell  stock. f 

*  NOTE. —  This  does  not  except  the  case  of  one  beginning  as  described  in  IF  103.  He 
buys  mediocre  stock  to  supply  the  first  demand,  and,  later,  higher  class  stock  to  prepare 
for  the  future  demand. 

tNoTE. —  A  novice  is  misled  as  to  the  profits  on  good  breeding  stock,  because  he  does 


88  PO UL  TR T-  CRAFT. 

Where  competition  is  as  active  as  among  poultry  breeders,  the  inexperienced 
buyer  need  not  fear  lest  he  pay  too  much  for  good  stock ;  though  it  must  be 
said  that  he  sometimes  pays  a  good  price  for  poor  stuff. — (Another  condition 
not  peculiar  to  the  poultry  business) .  One  soon  learns  where  to  buy  the  stock 
he  wants.  Taken  all  in  all,  beginners  lose  more  through  their  own  blunders, 
many  of  them  inexcusable,  in  selecting  and  ordering  stock,  than  through  the 
deceit, and  cupidity  of  dishonest  breeders.  All  reputable  breeders  ship  stock 
on  approval.  If  not  found  as  represented,  it  may  be  returned,  and  the  money 
refunded,  less  express  charges.  Sometimes  a  breeder  sending  stock  a  short 
distance  agrees  to  pay  the  return  express  in  case  the  stock  is  not  as  repre- 
sented. In  general,  the  buyer  pays  express  both  ways :  an  arrangement  not 
unfair  to  the  buyer  who  risks  only  the  amount  of  transportation,  while  the 
seller  risks  the  full  value  of  the  fowls.  The  safest  course  for  a  beginner  is  to 
buy  of  well  known  breeders.  He  may  pay  a  little  more  for  the  stock,  but  the 
reputation  of  the  breeder  affords  a  measure  of  protection  to  the  buyer  not 
versed  in  the  points  and  qualities  of  different  stocks.  A  breeder  who  has 
made  a  reputation  does  not  knowingly  risk  it  by  misrepresenting  his  stock,  or 
in  any  way  defrauding  his  customers.  It  often  happens  that  amateurs  offer 
equally  good  stock  at  lower  prices  than  the  established  breeder.  One  who  is 
himself  a  judge  of  the  stock  may  well  take  advantage  of  such  opportunities. 
A  novice  runs  more  risk.  Often  when  the  amateur  sells  good  stock  cheap 
it  is  because  he  does  not  know  its  value,  in  which  case  it  becomes  simply  a 
matter  of  chance  whether  the  buyer  gets  what  he  pays  for,  or  something 
better,  or  worse.  In  buying  from  a  breeder  of  good  repute,  a  beginner  wil) 
be  safer  to  take  the  breeder's  word  for  the  quality  and  value  of  the  stock,  thar 
his  own  judgment  or  the  expression  of  opinion  of  those  no  better  informed 
than  himself.  (Especially  is  this  true  in  buying  breeds  in  which  special 
-matings  are  required  to  bring  out  the  colors  in  perfection) .  A  novice  often 
:gets  the  mistaken  idea  that  a  certain  feature  is  a  sort  of  breed  birth  mark,  or 
itrade  mark, —  none  genuine  without  it.  The  experienced  breeder's  judgment 
iof  :a  fowl  strikes  the  proper  balance  of  defects  and  excellencies.  He  knows 
•what  is  back  of  the  birds  he  sells,  and  what  kind  of  progeny  they  are  likely  to 
produce. 

A  common  error  of  beginners  is  to  buy  males  and  females  of  different 
breeders,  in  order  to  be  sure  of  unrelated  stock ;  this  almost  uniformly  gives 
poor  results.  (The  reasons  for  this  will  be  presented  in  the  chapter  on 

not  know  how  large  a  portion  of  the  stock  is  worth  only  market  prices,  and  has  no  idea 
what  it  costs  the  breeder  to  advertise  and  sell  stock.  When  one  comes  to  sell  his  own 
stock  he  finds  that  prices  are  adjusted  by  the  inexorable  laws  of  supply  and  demand,  and 
that  a  breeder  must  be  able  to  raise  a  good  percentage  of  stock  of  fair  quality,  and  sell  it 
seasonably  at  prices  well  up  to  the  average,  if  his  year's  account  is  to  show  a  balance 
on  the  right  side  of  the  ledger.  It  is  worth  noting  here  that  the  customary  method  of 
figuring  profits  on  poultry  includes  in  the  cost  only  labor  which  has  been  paid  for  in 
cash.  In  most  instances  the  statement  of  profit  really  includes  the  poultryman's  time, 
and  is  not  all  clear  prof  t. 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRA  FT.  89 

breeding,  therefore  need  not  be  introduced  here).  The  best  way  is  to  buy 
both  sexes  of  the  same  breeder,  he  mating  the  stock  for  the  results  desired  by 
his  customer.* 

Another  thing  the  inexperienced  buyer  needs  to  consider  is,  that  if  the 
produce  of  the  stock  does  not  come  up  to  expectations ;  this  may  be  due  to 
the  effect  of  a  change  of  climate  and  treatment  on  the  parent  stock,  or  due 
to  lack  of  skill  in  caring  for  young  stock ;  that  it  is  more  likely  to  be  due  to 
the  latter  cause  than  to  the  other,  and  ten  times  more  likely  to  be  the  fault  of 
the  buyer  than  due  to  any  cause  chargeable  to  the  seller.  Such  statements  are 
neither  soothing  nor  flattering  to  those  who,  having  failed  to  realize  expecta- 
tions in  their  first  attempts  to  rear  good  stock,  are  disposed  to  blame  every- 
thing but  their  own  incapacity.  They  are  true,  none  the  less,  as  many  will 
find  if  they  will  give  the  same  stock  another  trial  —  more  favorable  because 
of  their  increasing  experience.  A  good  workman  can  do  creditable  work 
with  poor  tools  and  poor  material ;  a  poor  workman  bungles  with  good  tools, 
and  botches  a  job,  no  matter  how  good  the  material, —  generally  the  better  the 
material  the  worse  it  is  botched.  When  it  is  clear  that  the  fault  *s  in  the  stock 
or  in  the  mating,  it  is  surely  no  more  than  fair  to  the  seller  of  the  stock  to 
inform  him  of  results,  asking  his  advice  and  assistance  in  remedying  matters. 
He  will,  doubtless,  be  found  willing  to  do  all  that  could  reasonably  be 
expected  of  any  business  man  in  a  similar  case,  if  the  matter  is  stated  fairly 
and  courteously.  A  breeder  is  concerned  for  his  customers'  success.  He 
will  do  everything  in  reason  to  assure  it.  It  is  his  reputation  —  his  bread  and 
butter. 

There  are  rare  cases  where  buyers  are  deliberately  swindled.  To  seek 
redress  at  law,  is  generally  to  throw  good  money  after  bad.  The  best  thing 
to  do  is  to  file  a  complaint,  stating  the  facts  in  the  case,  with  the  paper  or 
papers  in  which  the  party  advertised.  Such  complaints  are  carefully  investi- 
gated, and  though  it  is  hard  to  obtain  conclusive  proof  of  fraud,  no  reputable 
paper  will  carry  the  advertisement  of  one  against  whom  complaints  are 
numerous  and  apparently  well  grounded. 

111.  When  to  Buy. —  In  the  fall  is  the  best  time  to  buy  stock.  Good 
stock  can  be  bought  for  less  money  then  than  at  any  other  season.  The  early 
buyer  gets  the  best  selection.  It  is  better  too,  for  the  fowls  to  be  moved  to 
their  new  quarters  before  the  hens  begin  laying.  It  is  a  mistake  to  put  off 
the  purchase  of  breeding  stock  until  just  prior  to  the  breeding  season.  One 

*  NOTE. —  When  an  amateur,  or  even  one  who  thinks  he  has  passed  that  stage,  buys 
stock  of  a  better  breeder  than  himself,  who,  knowing  all  about  the  stock,  has  mated  \\.for 
best  results,  the  buyer  consults  his  own  best  interests  by  breeding  the  stock  just  as  mated 
for  him.  Persons  who  have  spoiled  enough  good  stock  to  know  better,  will  buy  a  pair,  a 
trio,  or  a  pen  of  fowls,  which  are  sent  them  properly  mated.  A  foolish  prejudice  —  (it 
is  mere  prejudice)  —  against  inbreeding  leads  them  to  mismate  the  birds,  and  virtually 
throw  away  what  they  paid  for  when  buying  them. 


90  POULTRY-  CRA  FT. 

who  does  this  pays  more  for  his  stock,  and,  in  addition,  runs  the  risk  of 
losing  the  earlier  and  better  part  of  the  season  —  laying  and  hatching  results 
alike  being  likely  to  be  poor  while  the  fowls  are  becoming  accustomed  to  new 
conditions.  After  the  first  of  June,  each  year,  there  are  numerous  oppor- 
tunities to  buy  at  very  low  prices  some  of  the  stock  breeders  have  used  in 
their  breeding  pens.  These  are  bargains  for  those  prepared  to  give  the  stock 
proper  care  —  not  for  others. 

112.  Buying  Old  Stock. —  There   is   very    little   difference  in  point  of 
profitableness   in  buying   young   (breeding)   stock,   and  buying   stock  in  the 
second  year.     The  older  stock  costs  a  little  less,  can  be  used,  generally,  only 
one  season,  but,  is  likely  to  throw  better  stock  than  younger  fowls  of  the  same 
quality.     Fowls  past  two  years  old  may  be  worth  something  as  breeders  to 
one  to  whom  they  no  longer  owe  anything.     For  others  they  are  risky  invest- 
ments.    It  is  only  in  exceptional  cases  that  a  fowl  past  two  years  old  is  worth 
buying  for  breeding  at  any  price.    For  laying  stock,  young  hens  ought  always 
to  be  preferred,  because  of  their  longer  period  of  usefulness. 

113.  Prices  of  Stock. —  Prices  of  exhibition  stock  are  always  a  matter 
of  special  correspondence  between  breeders  and  buyers.      Fowls  fit  to  win  in 
the  average  show  cost  from  $10  or  $15  apiece,  to  double  and  treble  those 
figures.     What  is  called  "  number  one  breeding  stock,"  a  grade  of  stock  fit  to 
produce   fair  Standard  fowls,   itself  of  a  quality  to  rank  well  in  the   minor 
shows,  can  be  bought  at  $5  to  $15  each  for  males  ;  $3  to  $10  each  for  females. 
Fairly  good  breeding  stock,  satisfactory  to  all  who  do  not  value  or   cannot 
appreciate  the  fine  points  of  a  breed,  can  be  had  for  $2  to  $5  for  males,  and 
$i  to  $3  for  females.    The  prices  of  good  thoroughbred  stock  bred  for  utility, 
run  about  the  same,  though  extra  good  birds  sometimes  bring  more.     Those 
who  cannot  give  fowls  the  care  necessary  to  keep  them  up  to  the  standard  to 
which  they  have  been  bred,  will  find  it  better  to  buy  such  fowls  as  can  be  had 
at  $10  to  $15  a  dozen,  and  to  frequently  renew  their  whole  stock.* 

114.  Buying  Eggs. — "Is  it  better  to  begin  with  eggs,  or  with  stock?  "  is 
the  query  of  every  beginner.     People  have  all  sorts  of  results, —  good,  bad, 
and  indifferent  —  from  purchases  both  of  eggs  and  stock.     It  maybe  said, 
however,  that  in  buying  stock  both  the  risks  of  total  loss  and  the  chances  of 

*NOTE. —  This  does  not  mean  that  a  farmer  who  wants  to  keep  two  hundred  hens 
should  buy  them  at  those  prices ;  but  that  he  might  find  it  on  the  whole  more  profitable 
to  buy  a  breeding  yard  of  good  culls  every  other  year  from  which  to  produce  his  laying 
and  market  stock,  than  to  introduce  new  males  to  the  old  stock  each  year.  People  who 
keep  a  few  hens,  only  for  the  eggs,  would  find  the  cheap  grade  of  stock  as  good  as  any 
other;  provided,  always,  it  has  been  bred  for  eggs  —  cheaper  at  those  prices  than  they 
could  produce  it  for  themselves,  and  cheaper,  in  the  end,  than  the  most  of  the  stock 
offered  at  one-half  to  one-third  the  price. 


PO UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


9r 


getting  fine  stock  very  cheap,  are  less  than  in  buying  eggs.  Buying  matured 
stock  is  buying  something  tangible  and  real ;  buying  eggs  is  buying  chicks 
before  they  are  hatched, —  the  eggs  contain  possibilities ;  the  stock  is  a 
reality.  Prices  of  eggs  run  from  $i  to  $5 — rarely  higher,  though  $10  or 
$15  per  sitting  is  sometimes  charged.  The  common  prices  are  $3  to  $5  for 
eggs  from  high  class  exhibition  stock;  $1,50  to  $3  for  medium  exhibition 
and  good  practical  stock.  Incubator  eggs  are  sold  by  the  hundred,  at 
from  $4  to  $10,  or  $12.  At  the  former  price  they  are  generally  from  culls, 
and  used  mostly  for  hatching  broilers.  At  the  higher  prices,  eggs  can  be  had 
from  fairly  good  breeding  stock.  Packed  in  baskets  or  crates,  eggs  go  every- 
where by  express.  Long  distance  shipments  seem  to  give  good  results  quite 
as  often  as  short  ones. 


92  PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


CHAPTER    VII. 


Foods  and  Feeding. 

115.  Corn  —  is,  of  all  grains  used  as  poultry  food,  the  cheapest  and  most 
generally  available.  It  is  probable  that  American  fowls  are  fed  more  corn 
and  corn  products  than  of  all  other  grain  products  combined.  This  is  cer- 
tainly true  of  the  farm  flocks  and  small  flocks.  In  the  area  which  produces 
a  large  surplus  of  poultry,  corn  is  the  almost  exclusive  grain  food.  In  the 
practice  of  the  best  special  poultry  farmers  it  is  not  so  much  used,  but  still 
is  fed  more  generously  than  the  balance  of  published  opinion  against  its  use 
would  indicate.  It  contains  carbonaceous  matter  in  excess  of  the  require- 
ments of  all  fowls  in  warm  weather,  of  fowls  in  confinement  with  moderate 
exercise,  and  of  fowls  warmly  housed  in  winter.  Under  the  opposites  of 
these  conditions  corn  and  corn  products  may  be  the  principal  part  of  the 
grain  diet :  provided,  always,  that  the  fowls  have  all  the  vegetable  and 
animal  food  they  need,  and  care  is  taken  to  prevent  the  over-eating  of  corn 
in  warm  weather.  There  is  danger  in  feeding  corn  heavily.  There  is 
danger  in  heavy  feeding  of  any  grain  palatable  to  fowls.  With  whole 
corn  the  danger  is  greatest,  because  the  fowls  get,  with  so  little  exercise,  so 
much  food  of  a  kind  which  gives  under  ordinary  conditions  some  surplus  of 
heat  —  energy  which,  if  not  used  in  searching  for  more  food,  is  stored  up  as 
fat :  finally  to  the  detriment  of  the  fowl. 

The  greatest  abuse  of  corn  is  in  the  failure  of  those  who  use  it  freely  with 
good  results  in  cold  weather  to  reduce  a  little  the  amount  of  corn  in  the 
ration  for  hot  weather.  Knowledge  of  the  widespread  disorders  growing  out 
of  this  neglect,  has  led  some  authorities  on  feeding  to  place  so  much  stress  on 
the  risks  of  feeding  corn  that  many  are  afraid  of  it,  and  use  so  sparingly  that 
they  reduce  their  profits  as  much  by  over-caution  as  the  others  do  by  careless- 
ness. From  one  extreme  to  the  other  is  a  "  far  cry."  It  is  as  easy  to  learn 
to  feed  corn  right  as  to  learn  to  feed  right.  Considering  that  corn  always 
must  be  a  staple  article  of  poultry  food,  it  is  as  necessary  for  nine  out  of  ten 
American  poultry  keepers  to  learn  to  feed  corn  right  as  it  is  that  they  should 
make  poultry  profitable. 

The  forms  in  which  corn  foods  are  on  sale  are : 

WHOLE  CORN — (generally  shelled,  but  in  some  places  also  on  the  cob). 
May  be  fed  freely  as  an  evening  meal  to  growing  stock  large  enough  to  eat 
it ;  to  fowls  in  cold  quarters  or  on  range ;  may  be  a  part  of  the  evening  food 


POULTRr-CRAFT.  93 

of  fowls  in  confinement  (comfortable  quarters,  with  exercise)  ;  may  be  given 
as  a  light  morning  feed  to  fowls  on  a  good  range.  For  sitting  hens  and 
for  ordinary  fattening,  it  may  be  an  exclusive  food. 

CRACKED  CORN  —  if  fed  in  litter,  can  be  used  much  more  freely  and 
generally  than  whole  corn,  though  corn  that  has  been  long  cracked  contains 
proportionately  more  carbon  than  whole  corn.*  Unless  it  is  sifted  before 
using  there  is  some  waste  of  the  finer  particles,  which  should  be  sifted  out 
and  thrown  in  with  the  meal.  Fed  with  moderate  exercise  compulsory, 
cracked  corn  is  under  some  conditions  as  good  an  egg  producer  as  wheat  — 
and  much  cheaper.  When  an  abundance  of  carbon  is  needed,  it  is  a  better 
food  than  either  wheat  or  barley.  It  may  be  the  only  food  fed  to  growing 
chicks  on  a  range  wrhere  insects  and  green  food  are  abundant.  Such  a  diet 
is  not  the  best,  but  will  do  when  more  varied  diet  cannot  be  obtained,  or 
would  be  unprofitable. 

CORN  MEAL — (coarse,  unbolted),  forms  generally  one-fourth  to  one-half 
of  the  millstuffs  used  in  a  mash.  For  young  chicks  it  is  often  used  in  much 
more  generous  proportion.  Under  similar  circumstances  it  may  be  given 
moistened,  uncooked,  or  scalded,  half-cooked,  as  freely  as  cracked  corn.  As 
well  baked  johnnycake,  it  is  often  made  the  principal  part  of  a  ration  for 
chicks  however  situated. 

CORN  CHOP  —  is  finer  than  cracked  corn,  coarser  than  corn  meal,  and  may 
be  used  in  place  of  either. 

CORN  and  COB  MEAL  —  contains  more  indigestible  matter  than  the  other 
straight  corn  products,  but  still  has  digestible  elements  in  nearly  the  same 
proportions.  Cooked  with  clover  or  alfalfa,  it  makes  an  excellent  mash  for 
cold  weather. 

MIXTURES. —  The  most  common  commercial  mixtures,  composed  largely 
of  corn,  are  Mixed  Chop,  corn  and  oats  equal  parts,  ground;  and  ''''Prov- 
ender" a  mixture  of  corn,  oats  and  bran. 

116.  Wheat. — WHEAT  SCREENINGS,  DAMAGED  WHEAT.  Wheat  5s 
rated  the  best  single  grain  for  poultry.  Principally  in  connection  with  the 
use  of  wheat  has  arisen  a  question  of  the  relative  values  of  sound  and 
damaged  grains  as  poultry  food.  Wheat  being  a  staple  of  human  foodt 
the  price  of  good  wheat  usually  rules  high  as  compared  with  other  grains  — 
especially  corn,  the  only  other  grain  of  which  fowls  are  fond  as  of  wheat. 
Wheat  of  fair  quality,  broken  (good)  wheat,  and  good  wheat  screenings,  are 
as  good  poultry  food  as  the  very  finest  milling  wheats.  No  ordinary  test  will 
find  them  inferior.  Poor  wheat  and  dirty  screenings  can  be  fed  to  advantage 
only  when  bought  very  cheap.  Wheat  damaged  by  fire  or  water  can  also  be 
fed  to  advantage,  if  not  so  much  damaged  that  well  conditioned  fowls  refuse 
it,  and  if  the  price  is  right.  In 'buying  such  goods,  it  is  a  safe  rule  to  buv 
*  NOTE. —  Many  poultrvmen  crack  corn  as  needed,  thus  getting  its  full  food  value. 


94  PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 

only  when  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  advantage  of  using  the  lot  in  question. 
In  wheat  the  food  elements  are  combined  in  very  nearly  the  proportions 
required  by  the  system  of  the  fowl.  Under  conditions  of  moderate  temper- 
ature and  exercise,  it  may  be  made  almost  an  exclusive  diet  for  a  long 
time  without  perceptible  harm  to  the  fowls.* 

In  cold  weather  and  cold  quarters  wheat  alone  fails  to  keep  up  the  heat  of 
the  body.  Fed  freely  without  exercise,  in  warm  and  moderate  weather,  it 
fattens  quite  rapidly.  It  is  good  food  for  chicks  at  any  age,  and  should  form 
one-fifth  to  one-third  of  their  diet  whenever  purchasable  at  a  price  that  allows 
of  feeding  it  with  profit. f 

WHEAT  BRAN  —  is  used  in  nearly  all  mashes,  the  proportion  of  bran  to 
other  ingredients  varying  with  the  composition  of  the  bran.  Weight  is  a 
fairly  reliable  index  of  quality.  Light  bran  is  bran — nothing  else.  Heavy 
bran  contains  more  or  less  middlings.  Bran  alone  is  rarely  fed  to  fowls, 
though  some  poultry  keepers  give  their  fowls  free  access  to  a  dish  of  bran, 
wet  or  dry,  and  think  it  an  advantage  to  supplement  the  regular  meals  of 
heavy  laying  hens  in  this  way.  The  price  of  wheat  bran  seldom  goes  so  high 
that  there  is  anything  to  gain  by  using  substitutes. 

MIDDLINGS  and  SHORTS  are  names  for  practically  the  same  substance,  the 
mill  product  between  flour  and  bran.  Quality  varies  as  in  bran.  Both  these 
by-products  depend  for  quality  on  the  processes  used  in  the  mills  from  which 
they  come.  Being  rich  in  glutinous  matter,  middlings  are  most  valuable  to 
use  with  corn  meal,  and  in  the  mashes  of  all  rations  containing  much  corn. 
A  mash  made  largely  of  middlings  is  doughy,  sticky,  and  not  relished  by 
fowls".  One-fourth  to  one-third  is  the  proportion  of  middlings  commonly 
used. 

117.  Oats. — WHOLE  OATS  —  contain  nutritious  matter  in  nearly  the 
same  proportions  as  wheat,  but  because  of  their  coarse  indigestible  husk  are 
not  as  well  liked  by  fowls.  The  husk  constitutes  about  one-tenth  of  the  bulk 
in  good  oats,  and  in  poor  oats  much  more.  It  is  commonly  thought  that 
heavy  weight  oats  are  the  best.  Analyses  have  shown  that  the  contrary  is 
true.  \ 

When  buying  oats  the  quality  may  be  tested  accurately  enough  by  hulling 
a  few  sample  grains.  An  ordinary  inspection  does  not  detect  poor  quality  in 

*  NOTE. —  The  experiment  was  made  with  laying  hens,  (Brown  Leghorns),  and  a  sixty 
per  cent  egg  yield  secured  in  a  month  from  hens  fed  whole  wheat  three  times  daily  in 
close  confinement,  with  very  little  exercise. 

t  NOTE. — Just  how  much  more  a  poultryman  can  afford  to  pay  for  wheat  than  for  corn, 
is  an  open  question.  Experiments  with  cattle  indicate  that  the  feeding  value  of  wheat  is 
not  enough  greater  to  justify  the  usual  difference  in  prices  of  corn  and  the  various  grades 
of  wheat  on  sale  for  poultry  food.  The  results  of  these  experiments  give  wheat  a  cash 
feeding  value  one-tenth  to  one-fourth  above  that  of  corn. 

±U.  S.  Government  Bulletin. 


POULTRT-CRAFT.  95 

oats  as  readily  as  in  wheat.  It  is  important  for  the  feeder  to  know  the  quality 
of  the  oats  he  is  using.  It  is  not  an  unusual  thing  for  those  who  are  careless 
about  this  to  feed  bushel  after  bushel  of  worthless  oats  —  nothing  but  husks 
—  and  seeing  them  left  by  the  fowls,  conclude  that  the  fowls  are  over-fed; 
then  other  feeds  are  reduced,  and  the  fowls,  possibly,  half -starved  before  the 
error  is  detected.  A  very  few  poultry  keepers  have  reported  good  results 
from  a  diet  mainly  of  whole  oats.  By  most  they  are  fed  as  a  light  (noon) 
feed,  or  in  a  mixture  of  grains.  Good  oats  are  perhaps  the  best  whole  grain 
to  balance  a  heavy  corn  ration.  If  steamed  occasionally  they  can  be  fed 
oftener,  for  fowls  eat  them  more  readily ;  but  when  a  mash  is  fed  regularly, 
cooked  grains  should  not  often  be  given  in  addition.  The  feeder  can  save 
work  and  add  variety  by  occasionally  substituting  steamed  oats  for  the 
regular  mash. 

HULLED  OATS  —  make  a  very  good  cheaper  substitute  for  oat  meal  for  those 
who  like  a  good  proportion  of  oat  meal  in  a  ration  for  chicks.  They  may  also 
be  used  in  mixtures  of  grain  for  old  fowls. 

GROUND  OATS — (coarse,  unsifted),  are  used  in  mashes  and  in  cakes  for 
chicks.  When  fed  to  very  young  chicks  it  is  better  to  sift  out  the  hulls. 

OAT  MEAL  and  ROLLED  OATS  —  though  sometimes  highly  recommended 
for  young  chicks,  are  little  used  by  poultrymen.  A  few  use  one  or  other  of 
them  freely  for  the  first  week  or  ten  days ;  and  a  very  few  continue  their  use 
occasionally  after  that  period.  They  are  costly  foods.  When  fed  freely  oat 
meal  often  causes  bowel  disorders.  The  feeder  who  is  after  the  most  profit  will 
hardly  think  of  paying  high  prices  for  articles  specially  prepared  for  human 
food,  when  as  good  results  can  be  (and  are)  obtained  by  the  use  of  cheaper 
articles,  and  of  oats  in  cheaper  forms. 

118.  Barley  —  is  not  as  generally  kept  in  stock  for  poultry  food  as  the 
grains  previously  mentioned,  and  is  sometimes  hard  to  get  where  the  demand 
for    "chicken  feed"  is  light.      Fowls  do  not  like  it  as  well  as  wheat.      Its 
feeding  value,  as  determined  in  practical  use,  and  also  by  analysis,  is  nearly 
equal  to  that  of  wheat.     It  contains  a  little  more  fiber,  and  is  therefore  less 
palatable.     The  hull  seems  to  be  the  objectionable  feature  —  to  the  fowls  — 
for   hulled   barley  -  they   eat   freely.     Barley  contains  a  little  more  bone  and 
muscle  forming  food  than  wheat,  and  is  usually  enough  lower  in  price  to  be 
a  much  cheaper  food. 

BARLEY  SCREENINGS  —  have  a  larger  proportion  of  nutriment  than  well 
developed  grains  have. 

BARLEY  MEAL  —  has  about  the  same  properties  as  wheat  middlings. 

119.  Rye. —  The  general  condemnation  of  rye  as  a  poultry  food  seems  to 
be  based  on  very  limited  experiences  in  feeding  it.     In  some  parts  of  Europe 
it  is  the  "  staff  of  life,"  just  as  wheat  is  here  and  in  England,  and  is  used  much 


96  PO  UL  TR  r-  CRA  FT. 

for  domestic  animals  as  well  as  for  men.  Here  and  there  in  this  country  is 
found  a  feeder  who  uses  rye  with  good  results.  Its  rank,  as  determined  by 
chemical  analysis,  is  between  barley  and  corn.  It  is  less  fibrous  than  barley — 
a  little  more  fattening.  Rye  is  so  cheap  when  obtainable  that  it  is  surely 
worth  while  for  those  who  could  use  it  if  satisfactory  to  give  it  a  thorough 
test. 

RYE  BRAN — is  nearly  identical  in  composition  with  wheat  bran.  A 
mixture  of  equal  parts  of  rye,  corn  and  oats,  has  the  same  feeding  value  as 
buckwheat. 

120.  Buckwheat  —  is  very   generally  fed  as  a  part  of  the  whole  grain 
ration,  wherever  it  can  be  bought  at  a  price  that  admits  of  its  use  as  poultry 
food.     In  sections  where  little  of  it  is  grown  it  is  rarely  on  sale  except  at  seed 
stores,  and  at  a  rather  high  price.     It  is  more  fattening  than  wheat  or  barley, 
nearly  as  fibrous  as  oats ;  not  a  good  grain  to  feed  heavily. 

BUCKWHEAT  MIDDLINGS  are,  of  all  mill  stuffs  from  grains,*  the  richest  in 
albuminous  matter,  therefore  most  valuable  for  balancing  rations  deficient  in 
protein. 

121.  Sorghum  Seed  —  available  in  sorghum  growing  districts,  contains 
a  little  more  heating,  fattening  matter  than  corn.     Those  who  have  used  it  say 
it  is  a  good  poultry  food  — good  for  egg  production  for  hens  on  the  farm. 

122.  Chicken  Corn  —  (sorghum  vulgare)  — has  about  the  same  nutritive 
value  as  wheat,  as  much  husk  and  fiber  as  whole  oats. 

KAFFIR  CORN,  MILLO  MAIZE,  DURRA,  EGYPTIAN  CORN  —  resemble  chicken 
corn  in  food  properties.  The  names  of  these  grains  are,  in  popular  usage, 
rather  indiscriminately  applied.  All  make  good  poultry  foods.  They  are 
particularly  valuable  for  poultry  keepers  in  dry  regions  who  grow  their  own 
grains. 

123.  Broom  Corn  Seed, —  hulled,  makes  a  good  food.      (Tested  in  com- 
parison with  wheat,  it  gave  equally  good  results).     When  not  hulled  fowls  do 
not  eat  it  freely  enough  to  make  it  useful  as  a  staple  of  diet. 

124.  Millet  Seed  —  has  relatively  more  flesh  forming  substance  than  any 
of  the  larger  grains  —  more,  even,  than  oat  meal.       It  is  often  recommended 
for  young  chicks,  but  has  too  much  fiber,  and  is  too  apt  to  cause  bowel  troubles, 
to   be  used  as  freely  as  is  generally  suggested.     The  best  way  to  feed  it  to 
chicks  is  to  scatter  it  where  well  fed  chicks  can  get  it,  if  they  hunt  or  scratch 
for  it,  in  addition  to  their  regular  meals.       To  old  fowls  it  is  generally  given 
as  a  light  meal,  in  litter,  to  compel  exercise.      The  grains  are  so  small  that 
fowls  cannot  eat  dry  millet  fast  enough  to  make  a  good  meal  of  it.     When  it  is 

*  NOTE. —  Buckwheat  is  not  a  grain,  though  always  classed  among  grain  foods. 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT.  97 

cheap —  (as  it  is  in  some  places), —  a  good  way  to  feed  is  to  cook  it  and  feed 
in  troughs  instead  of  mash.  It  should  not  be  fed  regularly  in  this  way.  There 
are  numerous  varieties.  Those  having  the  largest  grains  give  best  satisfaction 
as  chicken  feed. 

125.  Linseed  Meal  and  Cotton  Seed  Meal  —  are  very  rich  in  albumen, 
and  may  be  fed  in  small  proportions  in  mashes,  though  those  who  can  get  corn, 
wheat,  and  oat  products  in  abundance  have  little  need  of  .either  of  these. 

126.  Other  By-Products  and  Waste  Products  from  Grain. —  There 
are  many  of  these  —  most  of  them  available  only  in  the  vicinities  of  the  factories 
from  which  they  come,  though  some,  extensively  used  in  cattle  feeding,  are 
kept    in   stock  by   large  feed   dealers  generally.     Few  have   been  practically 
tested    as    poultry  foods.      Trials  of  such  food  stuffs   ought  to   be  based  on 
knowledge  of  their  composition,  and  of  the  general  laws  of  feeding,  as  given 
in  the  next  chapter.      Haphazard  tests  of  food  accomplish  little. 

127.  Waste  Bread.  — Near  large  cities  waste  bread  is  an  important  item 
in  the  poultry  food  supply.     Much  of  it  is  not  broken  at   all  —  simply  stale 
bread.     A  mixed  lot  of  broken  bread  gives  a  very  complete  ration,  for  it  con- 
tains a  great  variety,  white,  brown,  graham,  and  corn  breads,  broken  cakes, 
muffins,  etc.     It  is   fed  in  various  ways :   dry,  crumbled  ;   moist,  crumbled ; 
simply  moistened  with  milk  or  water :  soaked  to  a  pulp  in  warm  water,  then 
thickened  with  meal  and  bran,  or  middlings.     Some  poultrymen  use  no  other 
soft  food.     It  is  very  cheap.     Fed  with  whole  corn  to  fowls  on  good  range,  it 
makes  a  most  economical  and  satisfactory  ration. 

CRACKER  CRUMBS, —  stale  and  broken  crackers,  are  also  used  as  food  for 
chicks. 

128.  Meat    Foods. — BEEF   SCRAPS,    DRIED   BLOOD,    ANIMAL   MEAL, 
PORK  SCRAPS,  LARD  CRACKLINGS  —  are  all  used  as  poultry  foods.     An  excess 
of  animal  food    in   a   ration   causes   digestive  troubles :    it  is  not,   therefore, 
advisable  to  feed  the  whole  meat  ration  in  the  mash.     If  a  part  of  it  is  fed 
separately,  fowls  are  not  likely  to  over-eat  of  it.    Fowls  over-fed  with  meat  will 
at  last  refuse  a  mash  containing  it;  but  the  mischief  is  done  before  the  fowls 
are  forced  to  refuse  the  food. 

GREEN  BONE  —  and  many  of  the  prepared  meat  foods  contain  much  mineral 
matter  —  needed  for  bone  and  for  shells. 

RAW  LEAN  BEEF  —  is  a  good  animal  food  when  it  can  be  had  for  little  or 
nothing.  As  by  far  the  greater  part  of  its  bulk  is  water,  the  feeder  cannot 
afford  to  pay  much  for  it,  with  prepared  foods  as  cheap  as  they  are. 

HORSE  MEAT. —  The  meat  of  a  healthy  horse  killed  for  cause,  can  be  used 
as  poultry  food  ;  but  ordinary  "  horse  meat"  is  unfit  for  fowls. 


98  PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 

FISH  SCRAPS  and  DESICCATED  FISH —  are,  near  the  sea  coast,  staple 
articles  of  animal  food  for  poultry.  Fish  products  impart  a  rather  strong  odor 
to  eggs  and  flesh,  and  are  often  on  that  account  objectionable. 

CLAMS — are  frequently  fed  to  fowls;  either  raw,  pounded  up  —  shell  and 
all  —  or  cooked  in  the  mash. 

129.  Eggs. —  Infertile  and  very  stale  eggs  are  commonly  used  as  poultry 
food   (and  are  sometimes  too  abundant  either  for  the  credit  of  the   poultry 
keeper  or  the  good  of  the  chicks,  to  which  they  are  oftenest  fed).      The  usual 
method  is  to  hard  boil  them,  chop  fine  and  feed,  either  alone  or  with  bread  or 
cracker  crumbs,  to  little  chicks.      A  better  way  is  to  break  them  —  shell  and 
all,  into  the  mash  or  the  batter  for  the  johnnycake ;  or  soft  boil,  break  and 
thicken  with  meal. 

130.  Vegetable    Foods. —  Nearly   all    common   vegetables   are   eagerly 
eaten   by   fowls.       Green   vegetables   and   roots   contain    little   nutriment   as 
compared   with  grain  —  from  78  to   96  per  cent  of  their  bulk  being  water. 
With  the  exception  of  potatoes,  they  are  hardly  more  than  relishes  in  winter, 
but  in  summer  are  an  important  part  of  the  ration. 

POTATOES  (WHITE)  and  SWEET  POTATOES  —  which  contain  the  most  dry 
matter,  are  very  carbonaceous,  hence  should  be  fed  sparingly  —  better  not  at 
all  to  fowls  which  get  much  corn. 

ONIONS  —  have  a  tonic  and  medicinal  value.  Fed  raw,  they  impart  their 
taste  to  the  flesh  and  eggs  of  fowls.  When  cooked  they  can  be  fed  more 
freely*  without  affecting  the  flavor  of  eggs  or  meat.  The  best  way  to  feed 
onions  is  to  slice  them  in  a  slaw  cutter,  and  boil  with  the  hay  or  vegetables  for 
the  mash ;  cut  up  fine  in  this  way  they  are  quickly  and  thoroughly  cooked. 

The  profitableness  of  feeding  vegetables  depends  much  on  their  cost.  To 
buy  them  at  the  prices  they  usually  bring  for  human  food,  does  not  pay,  for 
as  good  results  can  be  had  by  using  green  grass  in  summer,  and  clover  or 
alfalfa  hay  in  winter.  Vegetables  that  can  be  grown  cheaply,  as  cabbages, 
mangels,  etc.,  and  waste  vegetables  of  all  kinds,  can  generally  be  bought  at 
prices  so  low  as  to  admit  of  feeding  enough  of  them  to  give  the  ration  variety; 
but,  if  they  cannot,  fowls  which  have  plenty  of  good  hay  will  not  suffer  for 
lack  of  them. 

131.  Hay. —  The  RED  and  WHITE  CLOVERS,  and  ALFALFA,  —  not  over- 
ripe, well  cured,  make  the  cheapest  green  foods  for  winter  feeding.     Finely 
cut  hay  can  be  fed  as  a  separate  feed,  either  dry  or  steamed ;  but  it  is  better  to 
feed  it  cooked  in  a  mash.     Where  alfalfa  is  sold,  baled,  a  common  practice  of 
poultrymen  is  to  put  a  bale  under  a  shed  or  in  the  scratching  floor,  the  wires 

*NOTE. —  Five  pounds  of  onions  daily  to  every  one  hundred  hens  is  feeding  onions 
freely, —  gives  them  all  the  onions  they  care  to  eat  —  and  this  amount  of  cooked  onions 
can  be  fed  without  affecting  the  flavor  of  the  products. 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT.  99 

remaining  fast,  and  allow  the  hens  to  help  themselves  at  will.  Finely  cut 
clover  in  sacks  is  now  on  sale  by  leading  supply  houses.  It  is  of  little  use  to 
feed  fowls  woody  stalks  of  hay,  and  if  fine  hay  cannot  be  had  otherwise  it  is 
worth  while  for  a  breeder  who  could  use  a  considerably  quantity  of  it,  to  pay 
a  farmer  to  cut  and  cure  for  him  a  ton,  or  as  much  as  he  could  use  in  a  year, 
of  clover  or  alfalfa  in  the  right  stage  to  make  good  poultry  food.  One  who 
needed  but  a  small  quantity  can  often  arrange  to  get  a  few  bushels  at  a  time 
of  fine  leaves  from  a  neighbor's  haymow ;  or  may  cure  lawn  clippings  for  him- 
self, though  that  is  for  most  people  rather  unsatisfactory,  and  if  his  time  is 
worth  anything,  costs  more  than  to  buy  vegetables.  Hay  is  too  bulky  —  con- 
tains too  much  fiber  —  to  be  used  as  a  principal  poultry  food.  In  everydav 
use  no  difference  is  noted  in  feeding  properties  of  the  kinds  named.  Their 
rank  as  determined  by  analyses  is:  (i)  white  clover;  (2)  alfalfa;  (3)  red 
clover.  Prepared  clover  finely  cut  for  poultry  food  is  kept  in  stock  by  large 
dealers  in  poultry  supplies. 

132.  Milk. — SWEET    SKIM    MILK  —  is    invaluable    in    poultry  feeding. 
It  can  be  given  as  a  drink,  or  the  mash  can  be  wet  with  or  cooked  in  milk.    At 
the  low  price  for  which  it  can  be  bought  at  creameries,  it  is  one  of  the  most 
economical  of  foods. 

SOUR  MILK,  CLABBER  MILK,  and  BUTTER  MILK  —  are  all  fed.  For  mixing 
mashes  they  are  not  as  satisfactory  as  sweet  milk,  yet  many  use  and  like  them. 
Cold  clabber  milk  thickened  with  bran,  middlings  or  corn  meal,  makes  a  side 
dish  much  relished  by  fowls  in  hot  weather. 

CURD  —  is  a  valuable  food —  more  concentrated  than  milk  ;  giving  the  fowls 
the  solids  of  the  milk  without  the  water. 

CHEESE  —  that  has  passed  the  last  stage  of  fitness  for  human  food,  is  often 
given  to  fowls,  and  is  highly  recommended  as  an  egg  producer. 

WHEY  —  is  used  by  many  feeders  to  wet  the  mash.  It  contains  so  little 
solid  matter  that  the  advantage  of  using  it,  rather  than  water,  to  wet  the  mash, 
must  be  more  fancied  than  real  —  especially  as  its  solids  are  principally 
carbonaceous.  If  one  has  it,  it  will  pay  to  use  it  —  nothing  should  be  wasted. 
It  has  not  food  value  enough,  however,  to  make  it  worth  one's  while  to  go  to 
any  trouble  or  expense  to  get  it. 

133.  Egg  Foods. —  Condition  Powders. —  Tonics  and  Stimulants 
of  various  kinds  are  in  the  debatable  list  between  foods  and  medicines.     Some 
use  them  for  one,  some  for  the  other.     The  wisdom  of  using  them  depends  on 
circumstances.     It  is  certainly   unwise   for  one  whose  fowls  plainly  need  a 
tonic  to  neglect  —  on -principle  —  to  use  one  ;  and  it  is  as  certainly  unwise  to 
feed  stimulants  to  fowls  in  the  best  of  condition,  and  at  the  height  of  profitable 
productiveness   without   them.     Nearly   all   fowls   are  better  for  the   regular 
addition  of  a  condition  powder  to  their  mash  during  the  moulting  period,  and 
at  times  when  colds  are  epidemic;   as  they  often  are  at  the  same  time  among 
men  and  domestic  animals. 


ioo  POUL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 

134.  Qrit,  5hell,  Dry  Bone,  Charcoal  —  while,  perhaps,  not  properly 
foods,  are  important  accessories. 

GRIT  —  is  "  hens*  teeth,"  and  is  indispensable.  A  supply  of  grit  of  suitable 
size  should  be  accessible  to  a  fowl  from  the  time  it,  a  chick,  leaves  the  nest  or 
incubator. 

CHARCOAL  —  aids  digestion,  and  purifies  the  blood.  It  is  fed  either  pul- 
verized or  finely  cracked ;  sometimes  in  the  mash,  but  often  in  a  pan  or  box  — 
as  grit  and  shell  are  given.  Fowls  should  have  frequent  opportunities  to 
use  it. 

DRY  BONE  —  is  not  so  much  used  since  bone  cutters  and  the  prepared 
animal  foods  containing  bone  have  come  into  more  general  use. 

OYSTER  SHELLS  —  need  not  be  furnished  to  chicks,  but  should  be  given  to 
pullets  as  they  show  signs  of  laying,  and  should  be  always  accessible  to  laying 
hens. 

135.  Buying  Supplies  in  Quantity. —  Few  poultrymen  have   enough 
working  capital   to  buy   and  store   supplies    for    long  periods.     Those  who 
indulge  regrets  because  they  have  not,    spend  grief  unnecessarily.     Buying 
stocks  of  perishable  goods  subject  to  wide  fluctuations  in  price  is  very  much  of 
a  speculation.     One  may  buy  grain  enough  to  last  him  six  months,  only  to  see 
the  price  go  down  within  a  week,  and  stay  down.     Besides,  there  is  always 
some   shrinkage  and    loss   in  storing   food.     The  ordinary  action  of  the  air 
rapidJy  takes   nitrogen  from  ground   foods.     Whole  grains   are  more  easily 
kept,  but  a  few  rats  or  mice,  or  a  little  dampness,  may  cause  loss  much  greater 
than  the  original  saving  made  by  purchasing  the  larger  quantity.       Purchases 
of  supplies  should  be  according  to  size  of  the  business.     It  will  not  often  be  an 
advantage  to  buy  grain  for  more  than  two  or  three  months  at  a  time.     In  many 
cases  not  more  than  one  month's  supplies  can  be  managed  with  true  economy. 
In  buying  imperishable  goods,  as  grit,  oyster  shells,  etc.,  the  prices  of  which 
fluctuate  hardly  ever,  the  case  is  different.     A  small  poultry  man  had  best  buy 
supplies  of  these  to  last  a  year  or  two.       In  buying  damaged  stuff,  especially 
meats  and  vegetables,  it  is  well  to  keep  on  the  safe  side,  buying  only  as  much 
as  will  be  eaten  while  still  fit  for  use. 

136.  Using    Damaged   Articles   for   Poultry    Food. —  Allusion   has 
already  been  made  to  this  matter,  and  also  to  the  fact  that  fowls  are  gleaners 
and  scavengers.     The  latter  word  may  not  sound  nice —  the  fact  is  there,  none 
the  less.     The  treatment  of  this  question, —  the  decision  as  to  what  to  do  and 
what  not  to  do,  requires,  first  of  all,  common  sense.     To  go  to  the  extreme 
limit  of  what  fowls  will  endure  in  the  way  of  decomposing  and  filthy  food, 
is,  from  every  point  of  view,  a  mistake.      (Happily  it  is  not  a  common  one). 
To  be  over-nice,  is  to  be  altogether  unreasonable.     Food  that  has  just  passed 
the  stage  of  fitness  for  human  beings  of  somewhat  refined  tastes,  is  just  as 
agreeable  to  fowls  as  if  in  perfect  condition,  and  just  as  good  for  them.     The 


POULTRT-CRAFT.  101 

greatest  danger  in  using  such  foods  is  that  they  are  so  cheap  when  they  can 
be  had  in  quantity  that  the  feeder  is  tempted  to  use  too  large  a  proportion  of 
them, — especially  of  meats  and  vegetables, — keeping  the  fowls  short  on 
grain  to  compel  them  to  eat  the  other  stuffs.  As  far  as  the  effect  of  slightly 
damaged  food  on  the  health  of  fowls  and  the  flavors  of  meat  and  eggs  is  con- 
cerned, if  the  food  is  such  that  a  well  fed  fowl  eats  it  well,  no  bad  effects  can 
be  discerned.  As  a  simple  matter  of  fact,  the  most  common  unpleasant  flavors 
of  eggs  and  flesh  are  due  to  foods  (as,  say,  onions),  rightly  considered  par- 
ticularly healthy;  or  (of  eggs)  to  absorption  of  bad  odors  after  being  laid. 

137.  A  Balanced   Ration  —  is  a  complete  ration,  containing  in  proper 
proportion  and  in  sufficient  quantity  all  necessary  food.      The  food  eaten  by 
a    fowl    goes:  —  to  growth,    including    reproduction,   egg   production; — to 
'warmth;  —  to    strength.     Nitrogenous    elements    are    built   into   the   body, 
replacing   worn,   and    adding    new,    substance.     Carbonaceous  elements   are 
burned  in  the  body,    giving   warmth  and    energy  —  capacity  for    muscular 
action.     The  needs  of  the  fowl's  system  are  not  always  the  same.     It  does 
not  always  use  the  different  elements  in  the  same  proportions.     It  has  in  itself 
limited  power  to  balance  its  ration,  making  a  surplus  of  either  class  of  food 
elements  compensate  for  a  deficit  of  the  other.     In  the  foods  and  combinations 
of  foods  used  by  expert  feeders,  the  food  elements  are  about  right  for  average 
normal  conditions.     Observation  and  experience  soon  teach  a  feeder  how  to 
vary  his  ration  to  meet  changes  in  the  weather  and  apparent  changes  in  the 
condition    of   the    fowls.     The   commonest   fault   in  the   ration  of  well  fed 
fowls   is  an  excess  of   heat  and  fat  producing  matter.     For  this  the  feeder 
has  an  ever  present  remedy  in  the  power  of  compelling  the  fowls  to  expend 
it  in  exercise. 

138.  The  Need  of  a  Variety  of  Foods. —  A  ration  which  is  sufficient  in 
quantity,  and  provides  the  variety  of  foods  necessary  to  make  it  appetizing, 
will  be  on  the  whole  a  pretty  well  balanced  ration.     Such  a  ration  for  fowls 
in  confinement  would  comprise  two  or  more  kinds  of  whole  grain :  a  mash 
of  vegetables  —  or  hay  —  corn  meal,  wheat  middlings,  bran  —  or  mill  stuffs 
equivalent  to  these  in  feeding  value  —  some  kind  of  meat  food,  and  a  little 
green    vegetables  —  a    simple    diet,  yet  varied   enough  to  keep  the  digestive 
organs  in  good  condition  and  the  appetite  normal.     When  fed  grains  of  which 
they  are  fond,  under  conditions  which  invite  gluttony,  hens  will  over-eat,  as 
they  also  will  of  a  mash  containing  too  much  corn  meal.     If  fed  a  little  short 
on  grain  stuffs,  fowls  that  get  meat  and  vegetables  regularly  may  be  allowed 
to  let  their  appetites  regulate  the  quantities  of  them  to  be  eaten. 

Elaborate  compounds  of  foods  are  not  needed  in  mashes.  In  general  a 
mash  will  be  as  well  balanced  —  as  complete  —  as  a  ration  can  be,  with  three 
or  four  ingredients.  Good  feeding  is  systematic.  Large  bills  of  fare  make  a 
system  too  cumbersome.  That  the  fowls  may  be  trained  to  eat  what  is  given 


102  :  PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 

them,  the  greatest  possible  variety  should  be  introduced  in  feeding  whole 
grain.  (Not  a  great  number  of  grains  at  the  same  time,  but  frequent  changes 
made  in  the  grains  fed  by  way  of  variety).  "  Finickyness"  in  eating  is  a  bad 
trait  in  a  fowl.  In  different  places  the  feeding  problem  deals  with  slightly 
different  assortments  of  foods.  Wherever  located,  one  soon  finds  that  the  list 
of  articles  he  can  profitably  use  in  large  quantities  is  short. 

139.  Changing  Rations.  —  Once   found,  the   ration  which  gives  satis- 
factory results  should  be  used  as  long  as  prices  allow.     If  a  change  must  be 
made  in  a  staple  article  of  a  ration,  it    should  —  when  possible  —  be  made 
gradually.     Radical  changes  in  diet  always  have  some  bad    effects,    and    if 
fowls  have  not  been  taught  to  eat  what  is  set  before  them,  it  may  be  some 
days  before  they  eat  a  new  food  as  freely  as  they  should.     In  the  meantime 
their  light  feeding  will  have  played  the  mischief  with  the  egg  yield.     Fowls 
accustomed  to  eat  a  variety  of  grains  will,  of  course,  have  their  preferences, 
but  will  rarely  exercise  them  to  the  length  of  going  hungry  if  a  favorite  food 
is  not  forthcoming.      Neither  the  refusal,  at  first,  of  the  fowls  to  eat,  nor  the 
slight  bowel  troubles  incident  to  a  change,  should  prevent  the  use  of  a  food  it 
is  clearly  to^the  advantage  of  the  poultryman  to  use,  and  which  he  knows 
others  are  using  with  good  results. 

140.  Feeding  for  Special  Results.  —  Distinctions  between  "  rations  for 
eggs,"  "rations  for  growth,"  "maintenance  rations,"  "fattening  rations,"  are 
rather  misleading.     The  differences  are  not  so  much  in  the  proportions  of  the 
foods  as  in  the  methods  of  preparing  them,  the  form  in  which  the  food  is 
given,  the  number  of  daily  feeds,  the  quantities  fed,  and  —  most  important  - 
the  conditions  imposed  on  the  fowls.     A  ration  which,  fed   five  times  a   day 
gives  good  hardy  growth  to  chicks  at  liberty,  will  force,  or  even  fatten  chicks 
in  confinement,   though  for  quick   fattening  it  would  be  too  narrow.      The 
same    (in  composition)   ration  fed  three  times  daily  to  hens   with  moderate 
exercise,  would  make  a  good  laying  ration ;   fed  to  the  same  hens  without 
exercise,  it  would  be  a  fattening  ration.     Some  feeders  do  use   a  variety  of 
rations,  but,  except  for  forcing,  their  extra  work  is  latjor  lost. 

141.  Different   Rations   for   Different   Classes   of    Fowls. —  Some 
experienced  feeders  can  use  the  same  ration  for  Leghorns,  Plymouth  Rocks, 
and    Brahmas,    and    get    uncommonly    good    results    from    all ;   some  find  it 
necessary  to  use  quite  different  rations  —  more  so  than  to  make  differences  for 
the  same  breed  for  special  purposes.     Those  mentioned  first  are  more   skillful 
feeders,  have  better  judgment  as  to  how  much  to  feed.       Beginners  who  keep 
several  varieties   will  find   it  better,  at  least  at  first,  to  use  a  rather  bulky, 
nitrogenous  ration  for  fowls  prone  to  lay  on  fat ;   a  more  carbonaceous  ration 
for  the  active,  energetic  breeds.       Many  people — many  good  feeders  —  are 
a    little   too   automatic   in  their  work  to  handle  several  breeds,  of  different 
classes,  at  the  same  time  with  good  results  from  all. 


POULTRY  CRAFT.  103 

142,  Methods  of  Feeding. —  In  feeding  method  and  regularity  are  all 
important.     There  must  be  system.     To  the  fowls  it  will  make  little  differ- 
ence which  of  the  many  good  systems  is  used.     To  the  feeder  it  may  make 
much  difference.     One  system  will  be  more  convenient  for  this  man,  another 
more  convenient  for  that.     The  most  common  method  —  among  those  who 
have  method  —  is  to  give  a  mash  in  the  morning;  vegetables,  cut  bone,  or  a 
light  feed  of  grain  at  noon  ;   a  full  feed  of  grain  in  the  evening.     It  is  a  good 
system,    though   the  fact  that  equally  good   results  attend  the  use  of  other 
systems, —  among   them    one   just  the   reverse   of  this, —  disproves  the  very 
plausible  theory  which  persuaded  so  many  to  adopt  it.     The  theory  was  that 
the  fowls,  after  their  night's  fast,  needed  a  meal  that  would  be  quickly  assimi- 
lated, and  that  at  night  they  needed  a  meal  of  hard  grain  slow  of  digestion. 
Grain  in  the  morning  and  mash  at  night,  give  just  as  good  results.     Results 
as  good  as  the  best  have  also  been  obtained  from  grain  mornings  and  evenings, 
and  mash  at  noon.     It  is  by  no  means  certain  that  as  good  results  cannot  be 
obtained  without  a  mash  as  with  one ;  but  general  experience  indicates  that  it 
is  easier  for  most  to  get  good  results  by  using  a  mash  feed  once  daily,  than  by 
omitting  it.     The  great  value  of  the  mash  lies  in  the  opportunity  it  affords  to 
more  exactly  regulate  the  ration.     If  the  mash  is  not  eaten  eagerly,  it  is  at 
once  clear  that  the  fowls  are  over-fed,  or  that  the  other  food  contains  much 
too  large  a  proportion  of  some  substance  prominent  in  the  mash.     To  the 
trained  feeder,  the  mash  is  a  gauge  of  the  condition  of  his  flock.     Whatever 
be  the  system  adopted,  it  should  be  closely  followed,  and  changed  only  for 
some  very  good  reason.     One  of  the  common  mistakes  in  amateur  feeding  is 
to  make  frequent  radical  changes  of  rations  and  of  methods  of  feeding  —  a 
sure  way  to  bring  about  digestive  troubles,  and  ultimately  destroy  the  useful- 
ness of  such  fowls  as  are  not  killed  outright. 

143.  Cooking  Food. —  Some  feeders  cook  the  mash,  some  scald    (half- 
cook)  it,  some  merely  wet  it.     It  is  commonly  supposed  that  cooked  food  is 
more  digestible.     As  to  that,  there  is  no  conclusive  evidence.     A  significant 
pointer  is  that  the  leading  duck  raisers  have  changed  from  cooked  to  wet  food 
for   their   ducklings.       An    objection    to  wet  uncooked  food  is  that  it  sours 
quickly.     If  given  in  the  first  stages  of  fermentation,  it  does  no  harm  ;  but 
too  often  the  feeder,  unwilling  to  throw  it  out,  takes  long  chances  on  very 
sour  or  mouldy  food.     Cooked  food  remains  sweet  much  longer,  and  is  there- 
fore preferable  when  enough  for  several  feeds  is  to  be  prepared  at  one  time. 
While  good  results  are   undoubtedly  obtained  with  raw    and    partly  cooked 
foods,  general  opinion  and  practice  favor  the  thorough  cooking  of  mashes  for 
both  fowls  and  chicks,  and  of  the  baked  cakes  many  use  for  chicks.       Whole 
grains  should  be   cooked  only  occasionally,  by  way  of  variety.     For  this  a 
fibrous  grain,  as  oats,  not  palatable  in  its  natural  state,   should  be  selected. 
Cooked  grain  is,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  a  u  soft"  food.       Too  much  soft 
food  in  a  ration  impairs,  through  partial  disuse,  the  digestive  organs,  which 


104  po  UL  TR  r" 

in  the  fowl  are  specially  adapted  to  grinding  dry,  'whole  grain.  When  the 
digestion  goes  wrong  everything  begins  to  go  wrong.  Cooking  is  a  part  of 
the  preparation  of  commercial  meat  foods.  Fresh  meat  may  be  fed  either 
cooked  or  raw ;  when  cooked,  the  water  in  which  it  was  cooked  should  be 
vised  in  the  mash.  The  notion  that  raw  meat  makes  fowls  vicious,  is  absurd. 

144.  How  Often  to  Feed. —  Unless  the  foraging  ground  is  uncommonly 
good,  fowls  at  liberty  should  be  fed  twice  daily.     Fowls  in  confinement  should 
be  fed  two  or  three  times,  according  to   the   manner  of  feeding  the  whole- 
grain.    When  grain  is  fed  on  bare  ground  or  scantily  littered  floors,  it  is  better 
to  give  the  grain  for  the  day  in  two  feeds.     When  floors  are  heavily  littered, 
once  feeding  grain  may  be  enough.     Occasional  light  feeds  between  meaLs 
are  good,  but  to  regularly  give  four  or  five  meals  daily  to  adult  fowls  is  poor 
method.     Chicks  should  be  fed  from  six  to  three  times  daily,  according  to  age 
and  circumstances.     The  length  of  interval  between  meals  can  be  gauged  by 
the  appetites  of  the  chicks. 

145.  How  Much  to  Feed. —  The  common  rule  for  a  full  feed  of  mash 
is  :    All  they  will  eat  clean  and  quick.     If  mash  is  left  before  fowls,  they 
will  after  having  satisfied  their  appetites  once,  go  away,  and  a   little   later 
come  back  and  eat  more.     It  is  better  to  give  only  what  they  will  take  at  one 
"feed."     Of  a  properly  compounded  mash  as  much  as  they  will  eat  at  one 
time  can  safely  be  given.     When  grain  is  fed  in  heavy  litter,  a  quart  gives  a 
full  feed  to  a  dozen  average  fowls.     A  quart  of  grain  fed  thus  in  the  evening 
is  not  all  eaten  that  day.     One-fifth  to  one-fourth  of  it  will  remain  in  the 
litter  to  be  scratched  out  next  morning,  early  —  if  the  feeding  of  the  mash  is 
delayed ;  not  till  towrard  noon  if  a  full  feed  of  mash  is  given  the  first  thing  in 
the  morning.     Adult  fowls,  except  when  being  fatted,  should  not  be  allowed 
to  gorge  themselves ;   growing  chicks  may  safely  be  allowed  to  eat  all  they 
will  of  a  fairly  balanced  ration, —  and  it  will  do  no  harm  to  encourage  them 
to  eat  mor2. 

146.  Tested  Rations. —  REMARK. —  Most  of  the  rations  described  here 
have  "been  many  times  in  print,  though  not  in  the  exact  words  here  given. 
The  arrangement,  and  to  some  extent  the  wording,  is  changed  in  the  endeavor 
to   make   all  conform  to   a   common  pattern.     Comparison   of   some  of  the 
similar  rations  will  show  that  some  good  feeders  use  unnecessary  ingredients. 
The  great  variety  of  rations  given  here  makes  it  very  improbable  that  any 
inexperienced  feeder  will  be  unable  to  find  at   least  one  thoroughly  tested 
ration  suited  to  his  circumstances. 

(1).     Ration  for  Breeding  Stock. — (FELCH). — Summer Morning, — mash  of  boiled 

vegetables,  wheat  bran  and  corn  meal;  meat  in  some  form  added  three  days  in  the  week. 
Mash  fed  hot, —  as  much  as  will  be  eaten  before  9  o'clock.  Afternoon, —  at  4  or  5  o'clock 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRA  FT.  105 

a  full  feed  of  mixed  small  grains  and  a  little  corn.  Winter  —  Wheat  mash  will  be  eaten 
up  clean  at  the  morning  meal;  at  noon,  small  grains,  sunflower  seed,  etc. ;  at  night,  all 
the  corn  they  will  eat. 

(2).  Ration  for  Laying  Hens.  — Leghorns.— (WYCKOFF).— Morning  —  Mash 
compounded  as  follows:  i  bu.  corn,  2  bu.  oats,  ground  fine;  to  each  200  Ibs.  of  this 
mixture  add  100  Ibs.  bran  and  5  or  6  Ibs.  beef  scraps ;  moisten  with  milk ;  feed  in  troughs, 
returning  after  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  to  take  up  any  feed  that  may  be  left,  and  give  a 
second  feeding  where  needed.  At  noon, —  green  food,  mangels  or  cabbage  in  winter, 
clover  or  kale  in  summer;  sometimes  a  light  feed  of  mixed  grain  in  litter.  Night  feed, — 
mixed  grain,  in  winter  2  bu.  each  wheat,  oats,  buckwheat,  and  corn ;  in  summer  the  corn 
in  the  mixture  reduced  one-half. 

(3).  Ration  for  Twelve  Fowls. —  (BOYER). —  Dump  all  kitchen  scraps  into  an  old 
pot,  and  cook  each  evening;  salt  when  cooking.  In  the  morning  heat  up  again.  Scald 
i  pint  bran,  i  pint  equal  parts  ground  oats  and  corn  meal;  mix  with  the  scraps.  Twice 
a  week  add  a  little  condition  powder  or  charcoal  and  sulphur.  Feed  2  qts.,  (less  rather 
than  more)  to  twelve  hens.  At  noon  feed  i  pt.  of  wheat  or  oats  in  litter;  at  night,  i  qt. 
of  wheat,  oats,  or  (in  winter)  cracked  corn  in  litter,  feeding  the  grains  in  regular  rotation. 

(4).  Ration  for  Fowls  Kept  on  the  Colony  Plan. —  (WILBOUR). —  Morning  feed, 
—  cooked  vegetables  and  mixed  meals;  afternoon  feed, —  whole  corn  the  year  round. 

(5).  Ration  for  Laying  Hens. —  (DAWLEY). —  Morning, —  mash,  clover  hay  or 
crimson  clover  steamed  over  night ;  in  the  morning  stirred  up  with  a  mixed  feed  of  100 
Ibs.  coarse  wheat  bran,  75  Ibs.  yellow  corn  meal,  100  Ibs.  ground  oats,  50  to  75  Ibs. 
linseed  meal,  a  little  charcoal,  salt.  Feed  all  they  wijl  eat  clean.  Noon, —  green  bone 
and  vegetables.  Night, —  whole  wheat  and  a  little  corn. 

(6).  Ration  for  Fifty  Laying  Hens.—  (Mrs.  REED).— A  little  grain  scattered  over 
night  for  an  early  morning  feed.  Mash  when  the  sun  is  about  two  hours  high  ;  take  for 
fifty  hens  8  qts.  boiling  water,  i  tablespoon  fine  salt,  i  teaspoon  cayenne  pepper,  i  teacup 
drippings  or  fat;  into  this  stir  corn  meal  2  parts,  wheat  bran  i  part  —  to  make  a  soft 
dough — not  a  batter.  Feed  very  hot,  in  troughs,  as  much  as  they  will  eat  up  clean  in 
one-half  hour.  Noon  feed, —  house  scraps.  Evening  feed, —  grain,  principally  corn  on 
the  cob ;  wheat,  rye,  oats,  barley,  and  buckwheat  used  with  corn  in  rotation. 

(7).  Ration  for  Laying  Breeding  Stock.—  (NESMITH).—  Morning,—  a  full  feed 
of  whole  grain,  principally  wheat ;  but  barley,  oats,  buckwheat  used  often.  Noon, —  a 
light  feed  of  grain.  Evening, —  mash,  of  dried  bread,  cut  clover,  beef  scraps  and  mixed 
meals,  well  cooked  and  fed  warm  —  not  hot  —  all  they  will  eat. 

(8).  Laying  Ration  for  Twelve  Wyandottes.— (PATTON).—  Morning,  i  qt. 
wheat  in  litter.  Noon, —  green  food,  clover,  mangels. or  cabbage.  Evening,  —  mash, 
8  parts  corn  meal,  8  parts  fine  bran,  4  parts  buckwheat  middlings,  3  parts  meat  meal,  2 
parts  oil  meal,  a  little  salt;  all  mixed  in  warm  water  and  fed  crumbly,  all  they  will  eat 
clean. 

(9).  Ration  for  Laying  Hens.  —  Leghorns  —  in  Cold  House.— (EWING  &  Fox).— 
Morning, —  mash,  2  parts  bran,  i  part  corn  meal,  i  qt.  cut  bone  to  40  hens  added  every 
other  day;  condition  powder  once  a  week.  Noon, —  cabbage  and  a  little  grain,  generally 
oats  or  barley.  Night, —  wheat  and  corn,  alternating. 

(10).  Ration  for  Adult  Fowls.— (CURTIS).— Morning,— mash  one-half  bran,  the 
other  half  boiled  potatoes,  cracked  corn,  ground  wheat,  chopped  oats,  any  special  article 
at  hand.  Afternoon, —  whole  grain,  in  litter,  corn  and  wheat,  in  summer  equal  parts; 
in  winter  two-thirds  corn,  one-third  wheat. 


io6  POULTRr-CRAFT. 

(11).  Ration  for  Laying  Breeding  Stock.— (BUFFINTON).—  Morning,—  mash, 
corn  meal  and  middlings,  equal  parts,  a  little  beef  scrap  and  (in  winter)  boiled  potatoes, 
a  little  salt,  egg  food ;  mixed  with  hot  water  and  fed  as  soon  as  the  fowls  can  see,  except 
in  the  long  summer  days.  Mash  fed  light,  and  a  little  dry  grain,  mixed,  given  after  it. 
Afternoon  feed, —  dry  grain,  oats,  corn  and  wheat,  equal  parts. 

(12).  Ration  for  Thirteen  Plymouth  Rocks  (male  and  twelve  females)  in  Con- 
finement.— (LASH). — Morning  and  noon, —  for  pullets  i  pt.  wheat,  in  litter;  for  hens 
three-quarters  pt.  Evening, —  mash,  4  parts  beans,  2  parts  shorts,  3  parts  ground  oats, 
i  part  ground  corn,  one-third  the  whole  cut  clover;  every  third  day  one-quarter  the 
whole  green  bone ;  2  tablespoons  pulverized  charcoal  to  bucket  of  feed  every  third  day ; 
wet  with  hot  water,  and  when  cool  feed  until  the  crops  are  about  two-thirds  full. 

(13).  Ration  for  Laying  Stock —  A  Three-Day  Rotation.— (HUNTER).—  Morn- 
ing,—  mash,  cooked  vegetables  mashed  fine,  or  cut  clover  cooked  by  being  brought  to  a 
boiling  heat  in  water;  to  this  add  an  equal  amount  of  boiling  water;  to  each  bucket  of 
feed  use  a  tablespoon  salt,  and  two  days  a  heaping  teaspoon  condition  powder,  the  third 
day  of  powdered  charcoal.  Make  mash  very  stiff  with  mixed  meal, —  by  measure,  i  part 
each  corn  meal,  fine  middlings,  bran,  ground  oats,  and  animal  meal, —  the  meal  omitted 
or  reduced  in  quantity  when  cut  bone  is  fed.  Mash  omitted  two  days  in  each  week. 
Noon, —  light  feed  of  grain.  Evening, —  full  feed  of  grain.  Grain  fed  in  variety  in 
rotation,  thus  :  — 

Monday  —  oats  (or  barley),  wheat,  whole  corn. 

Tuesday  —  mash,  barley  (or  buckwheat),  wheat. 

Wednesday — mash,  cut  bone,  wheat. 

Cabbage,  or  split  roots  of  beets,  turnips,  etc.,  fed  often. 

(14).  General  Ration  for  Adult  Fowls  and  for  Chicks  when  given  Three 
Meals  a  Day. —  Morning, —  mash;  by  measure,  2  parts  finely  cut  alfalfa,  2  parts  heavy 
bran  (bran  and  middlings),  i  part  corn  meal;  cook  alfalfa  in  as  much  water  as  will  make 
the  quantity  of  mash  needed  of  proper  consistency  (about  the  proportion  of  5  gals,  water 
to  each  peck  of  the  hay)  ;  when  boiling  stir  in  the  corn  meal,  or  chop,  making  a  thick 
mush;  add  the  bran,  making  a  very  stiff,  almost  crumbly  dough.  Feed  either  hot  or 
cold,  all  they  will  eat  clean  in  ten  to  fifteen  minutes.  If  other  green  food  is  abundant 
the  hay  may  be  omitted,  (in  which  case  not  so  much  mash  should  be  fed,  and  the  green 
food  given  an  hour  or  two  after  the  mash).  With  the  proportion  of  hay  specified  in  the 
mash  fowls  need  no  other  green  food.  Noon, —  a  light  feed  of  oats  or  millet,  dry  or 
steamed;  or  of  wheat  —  about  one-half  pint  to  every  ten  hens.  Noon  feed  omitted  on 
Sundays.  Evening, —  at  4  or  5  o'clock  wheat,  about  i  pint  to  every  ten  hens,  in  litter; 
at  dusk  whole  corn  to  fowls  that  are  waiting  for  it.  Two  or  three  times  a  week  cut  bone 
nt  mid-afternoon,  and  on  these  days  the  evening  feed  slightly  reduced. 

(15).  Ration  for  Small  Flock,  in  Confinement,  with  Exercise.— Morning,— 
mashes ;  alternating,  one  day  table  scraps  and  slops  mixed  cold  with  corn  meal,  shorts 
and  bran  equal  parts ;  next  day,  2  parts  corn  meal,  i  part  fine  shorts,  3  parts  bran,  a  little 
meat  meal.  Make  a  thin  mush  of  the  corn  meal,  and  pour  while  boiling  over  the  other 
ingredients  previously  mixed  dry  in  a  pail ;  stir  thoroughly  to  a  stiff,  almost  crumbly 
dough  ;  feed  when  cool.  (A  mash  made  in  this  way  needs  time  to  cook  by  its  own  heat). 
At  noon  vegetables  or  steamed  clover  occasionally.  Afternoon  feed,  3  o'clock, —  cracked 
corn  in  heavy  litter,  i  qt.  to  twelve  hens  two  days ;  the  third  day  same  amount  wneat. 
On  cold  evenings  give  at  dusk  all  the  whole  corn  that  will  be  eaten  greedily. 

(16).  Forcing  Ration  for  Broilers.— (DUSTON).— First  feed,— rolled  oats,  warm 
skim  milk.  First  week, —  rolled  oats,  millet  seed,  cracked  corn.  Second  week, —  use  a 
little  of  a  mash  made  of  one-third  corn  meal  to  two-thirds  wheat  bran,  seasoned  with 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT.  r  07 

salt  and  red  pepper.  When  chicks  eat  mash  freely  alternate  hard  and  soft  foods.  Third 
week  and  after,  —  first  feed  in  morning,  hard  grain  ;  next  chopped  raw  potatoes  followed 
by  a  little  cut  cabbage  or  onions.  At  9  and  n  A.  M.,  i  and  3  P.  M.,  mash.  At  5  P.  M., 
cracked  corn.  Finish  off  at  six  to  eight  weeks  by  adding  cotton  seed  meal  and  a  little 
treacle  to  the  mash. 

(17).  Ration  for  Broilers  —  (PRESSEY).—  First  ten  days,—  baked  cake,  3  qts.  corn 
meal,  i  qt.  wheat  middlings,  i  cup  meat  meal;  mix  with  water  or  skim  milk,  to  which 
has  been  added  4  tablespoons  vinegar,  2  teaspoons  soda;  mashed  potato  once  a  day. 
After  ten  days,  take  2  parts  corn,  i  part  wheat,  i  part  oats,  ground  fine;  to  each  10  qts. 
of  this  mixture  i  qt.  bran,  i  pt.  middlings,  i  pt.  meat  meal,  one-half  cup  bone  meal: 
mix  stiff  with  warm  water  two  hours  before  feeding.  Fatten  on  a  mixture  of  2  parts 
corn,  i  part  wheat,  ground  together,  ground  meat  added;  mix  stiff  with  warm  water  two- 
hours  before  feeding;  feed  three  or  four  times  a  day. 

(18).  Ration  for  Broilers.  —  (HOWE).  —  First  ten  days,  —  johnnycake,  i  pt.  corn 
meal,  i  teacup  bran,  i  teaspoon  ground  meat,  i  raw  egg,  i  teaspoon  soda,  i  teacup  cold 
water;  bake  two  hours.  After  ten  days,  —  ground  wheat,  oats  and  corn,  moistened. 
Oyster  shell,  bone  and  charcoal  before  the  chicks  in  separate  dishes. 

(19).  Ration  for  Broilers.  —  (PETERSON).  —  First  ten  days,  —  stale  bread  crumbs 
moistened  with  milk,  alternated  with  dry  bread  crumbs  at  two  hour  intervals  ;  skim  milk 
to  drink.  After  ten  days,  —  ground  corn  i  part  to  ground  wheat  2  parts,  moistened. 

(20).  Ration  for  Broilers.—  (WHITE).—  First  week,—  plain  johnnycake,  baked 
without  soda.  After  first  week,  —  mash,  equal  parts  corn  meal,  bran  and  middlings,  with 
a  little  meat  scraps.  (Lessen  middlings  if  chicks  become  costive;  increase  middlings  if 
chicks  show  looseness).  Scatter  a  little  grain  about  to  induce  exercise  between  feeds. 
Have  grit  and  charcoal  constantly  by  them  ;  If  chicks  do  not  voluntarily  eat  charcoal  it  is 
mixed  in  the  mash. 

(21).  Ration  for  Chicks.  —  (HUNTER).  —  First  feed,  —  hard  boiled  eggs,  chopped  fine 
i  part,  to  dry  bread  crumbs  3  parts.  First  five  or  six  weeks,  —  coarse  oat  meal  moistened 
with  skim  milk  alternated  at  two  hour  intervals  with  dry  bread  crumbs  until  4  P.  M., 
then  feed  cracked  wheat  or  corn.  Meat  twice  a  week;  green  food  often.  From  six  to 
ten  weeks  old,  —  morning,  bread  crumbs  ;  10  A.  M.,  oat  meal  ;  1.30  P.  M.,  cracked  wheat  : 
5  P.  M.,  whole  wheat  and  cracked  corn,  alternately;  vegetables  and  meat  continued  a^ 
before.  After  ten  weeks,  —  rations  as  for  adult  fowls.  (See 


(22).  Ration  for  Chicks  for  Stock  Birds.—  (BOYER).—  First  week,—  rolled  oats  or 
pin  head  oat  meal  fed  in  troughs,  alternate  with  stale  bread  crumbs,  dry  ;  boiled  milk  to 
drink.  After  first  week  —  mash,  2  parts  bran,  i  part  corn  meal,  (or  2  parts  bran,  i  part 
corn  meal,  i  part  ground  wheat),  a  handful  of  meat  scraps  to  a  pail  of  mash.  After  two 
weeks  give  also  cracked  wheat  and  corn.  Keep  grit,  oyster  shell,  and  powdered  charcoal 
by  them.  Feed  freely  green  tops  ;  or,  if  these  cannot  be  had,  roast  potatoes  cut  in 
halves. 

(23).  Ration  for  Chicks  for  Stock  Birds.—  (RUDD).—  First  two  weeks,—  crumbled 
johnnycake  (from  waste  bread)  and  granulated  oats,  dry  ;  green  food  and  powdered 
charcoal  constantly  before  them.  After  two  weeks  whole  or  broken  wheat  and  cracked 
corn  added.  At  three  weeks  begin  to  give  moist  food,  stale  bread  soaked  in  sweet  milk, 
thickened  with  corn  meal,  —  meal  about  one-half  of  the  whole.  At  four  weeks  discontinue 
granulated  oats.  Cracked  corn  always  before  the  chicks  until  they  are  old  enough  to  eat 
whole  corn,  then  whole  corn  always  before  them  until  full  grown. 

(24).  Ration  for  Chicks  for  Stock  Birds.—  (FELCH).—  First  meal,—  boiled  eggs 
chopped  fine,  shell  and  all,  with  baked  corn  cake,  or  excelsior  meal  cake,  crumbled 


loS  PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 

with  scalded  milk;  then,  morning,  excelsior  meal  bread  and  scalded  milk;  10  A.  M., 
granulated  corn;  2  P.  M.,  excelsior  meal  bread  and  scalded  milk;  6  P.  M.,  canary  seed, 
millet  seed,  granulated  corn.  After  two  weeks  a  varied  diet,  two  soft  feeds  alternating 
with  two  hard  feeds,  excelsior  meal  bread  frequently  given,  and  morning  mash  often 
mixed  with  meat  or  in  broth  of  meat;  green  food  fed  regularly. 

Excelsior  Meal — grind  together  20  Ibs.  corn,  15  Ibs.  oats,  10  Ibs.  barley;  add  10  Ibs. 
wheat  bran.  To  make  cakes  :  take, —  one  quart  sour  milk  or  buttermilk,  add  a  little  salt 
and  molasses,  a  quart  of  water,  a  heaping  teaspoon  saleratus ;  thicken  with  the  meal,  a 
little  thicker  than  batter  for  corn  cakes ;  bake  in  shallow  pans. 

(25).  Ration  for  Chicks  for  Stock.—  (LAMBERT).—  Corn,  wheat,  oats,  equal  parts, 
ground;  mix  with  milk,  bake;  feed  all  they  will  eat  five  times  a  day,  at  three  hour 
intervals.  After  four  weeks  alternate  with  cracked  corn,  crushed  wheat,  etc.  Use  whole 
corn  and  wheat  as  soon  as  it  is  eaten  easily.  If  milk  cannot  be  obtained  for  johnnycake, 
mix  alternately  with  desiccated  fish  and  animal  meal. 

(26).  Ration  for  Chicks  on  Range. —  (Mrs.  THOMAS). — Warm  mash  (same  as  for 
old  fowls),  in  the  morning;  millet  where  they  can  get  it  all  day  long;  whole  wheat  at 
night ;  night  feed  varied  occasionally  by  using  other  grains. 

(27).  Rations  for  Chicks,  for  Stock  Birds  on  Limited  Range  or  in  Roomy 
Yards. —  Winter, —  Morning, —  mash  as  for  old  fowls  (^14)  ;  9  A.  M.,  baked  cake  of  corn 
chop  and  house  scraps,  made  as  follows :  add  a  little  soda  to  sour  milk ;  throw  in  the 
scraps,  finely  broken  ;  stir  in  the  chop  to  make  a  very  stiff  batter.  (The  stiffer  the  better. 
Thin  batter  takes  longer  to  bake,  and  bakes  with  a  thicker,  tougher  crust)  ;  bake  in  deep 
pans,  well  greased.  Feed  the  heart  of  this  cake  in  chunks,  the  crust  crumbled  or  cut  in  a 
bone  cutter.  Feed  cake  again  at  11.30  A.  M.  and  2.30  P.  M.  At  dusk  feed  whole  wheat. 
Give  both  milk  and  water  to  drink,  boiling  the  milk  if  there  are  symptoms  of  looseness 
of  the  bowels.  Summer. —  5.30  A.  M.,  mash  ;  7.30  A.  M.,  green  food,  lettuce  or  cabbage  ; 
9  A.  M.,  corn  cake;  n  A.  M.,  millet;  2  P.  M.,  corn  cake;  4  P.  M.,  corn  cake,  meat,  or 
green  food;  6  to  7  P.  M.,  whole  wheat,  all  they  will  eat,  followed  by  corn  either  cracked 
or  whole.  (It  will  be  found  that  chicks  after  eating  their  fill  of  one  kind  of  food  will 
shortly,  if  given  the  opportunity,  stuff  themselves  on  another.  It  will  not  hurt  them  in 
the  least  to  do  this  in  the  evening,  and  this  method  of  feeding  can  be  made  very  effective 
in  forcing  growth). 

(28).  Rations  for  Chicks  on  Good  (Orchard)  Range.— Mash  (as  in  (His)),  5.30 
A.  M. ;  cracked  corn,  9.30  A.  M. ;  cracked  corn,  whole  wheat,  or  mash,  2  P.  M. ;  cracked 
corn,  6  P.  M. 

147.  Good  Feeding  Requires  Skill. —  No  matter  how  thorough  a 
* '  book  knowledge  "  one  may  have  of  the  properties  of  foods  and  the  principles 
of  feeding,  no  matter  how  familiar  he  may  be  with  accepted  formulas  for 
correct  feeding,  or  how  closely  he  may  follow  a  good  system  of  feeding,  he 
finds  that  good  feeding  depends  finally  on  SKILL.  Skill  is  acquired  only 
through  practice.  Skill  in  feeding  is  not  merely  mechanical.  It  depends  on 
a  judgment  trained  to  observe,  closely  and  without  conscious  effort,  the 
appearances  of  fowls,  to  note  beginnings  of  departures  from  normal  growing 
or  producing  conditions,  and  to  decide,  as  if  by  instinct,  how  to  preserve  or 
restore  the  health  of  the  fowls. 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT.  109 


CHAPTER    VI 


Science  in  Poultry  Feeding. 

148.  Where  Common  Knowledge  Fails. —  Purely  practical  knowledge 
and  skill,  enough  for  ordinary  use,    can   be   acquired   without  study  of  the 
science  of  feeding.     The  simple  instruction  which  helps  to  a  common  sense 
understanding  of  the  needs  of  an  animal  organism  and  plain  knowledge  of 
the  properties  of  the  staple  poultry  foods,  is  enough  for  most  poultry  keepers 
—  enough  for  all  as  long  as  only  familiar  articles  are  used  in  approved  combi- 
nations.    But  when  it  is  advisable  to  use  other  articles  or  untested  combina- 
tions, this  common  knowledge  fails.     It  has  not  equipped  the  feeder  to  work 
out  feeding  problems  for  himself.     Work  at  them  he  may,  through  a  tiresome 
and  expensive  course  of  haphazard  experiments,  but  there  is  no  need  that  he 
should   follow  such  a  course.     An  elementary  knowledge  of  the  science  of 
feeding,  and  access  to  a  table  giving  the  analyses  of  the  food  stuffs  he  wishes 
to  use,  make  it  possible  for  him  to  formulate  rations  with  absolute  certainty 
as  to  their  theoretic  value,  and  reasonable  expectation  of  their  practical  feeding 
value. 

149.  Food  Requirements  of  Fowls. —  The  food  which  a  fowl  eats  has 
three  functions  :  (i).   To  develop  and  maintain  its  organic  structure ;   (2).  To 
keep  it  warm  —  to  keep  up  heat  in  the  body;    (3).  To  furnish  the  strength  — 
energy  —  which   is  expended   in  every  movement.     The   chemical  elements 
which  maintain  these  functions  are  found  in  combination  in  every  article  of 
food,    constituting   its  digestible   matter;    in  the   staple  grains  they  occur  in 
nearly  the  proportions  required  by  fowls  under  average  normal  conditions. 

150.  Food  Elements  may  be  classed  as  :  Principal  and  Subordinate. 
PRINCIPAL  FOOD  ELEMENTS  are : 

(i).  Proteids  (or  protein)  albuminous,  or  nitrogenous  matter;  in  grains, 
gluten ;  in  milk,  casein  ;  in  meat  and  blood,  fibrin  ;  in  bones,  gelatin.  Pro- 
tein is  the  nourishing  matter,  supplying  material  for  bone,  muscle,  blood, 
feathers,  eggs. 


no  POULTRT-CRAFT. 

(2).  Carbohydrates  (technically,  "nitrogen-free  extract"),  carbonaceous 
matter,  principally  starches.  Carbohydrates  form  the  bulk  of  the  dry  matter 
in  nearly  all  foods,  and  are  the  principal  sources  of  heat  and  energy,  which, 
as  is  well  known,  are  convertible. 

(3).  Fats. —  Found  to  some  extent  in  every  article  of  food.  Their  function 
is  to  furnish  heat  and  energy,  on  demand,  in  addition  to  the  supply  from  the 
carbohydrates,  to  store  up  fat  as  a  reserve  of  heat  and  energy  within  the 
body,  and  to  furnish  the  material  for  elementary  growth  cells  which  are 
developed  by  the  protein.  Fat  also  enters  largely  into  the  composition  of  the 
egg,  forming  nearly  one-half  its  solids. 

As  far  as  known  these  elements  have  the  same  properties,  no  matter  what 
the  form  in  which  they  occur.  In  the  last  effect,  it  makes  no  difference 
whether  the  sources  of  the  protein,  carbohydrates  and  fats  assimilated  were 
vegetable  or  animal.  It  is  known,  however,  that  in  animal  foods  the  elements 
are  more  completely  digestible  than  in  grains,  and  more  digestible  in  grains 
than  in  vegetables  and  fruits ;  and  it  has  been  observed  that  of  two  foods,  one 
animal,  the  other  vegetable,  containing  large  and  nearly  equal  proportions  of 
protein  or  of  fat,  the  animal  food  is  generally  preferred  —  is  more  palatable. 
In  formulating  working  standards  and  in  making  practical  applications  of  the 
laws  of  foods,  using  the  chemical  analyses  of  articles,  the  principal  elements 
are  regarded  as  completely  digestible.  The  subordinate  elements  are  regarded 
as  indigestible,  and  are  omitted  from  calculations.  The  results  thus  obtained, 
while  not  strictly  accurate,  are  sufficiently  so  for  practical  purposes. 

SUBORDINATE  FOOD  ELEMENTS  are  : 

(i).  Ash  —  lime  and  other  mineral  matter,  occurring  generally  in  very 
small  quantities,  except  in  such  articles  as  bone  and  shell  —  partly  digestible. 

(2).    Fiber,  husks  or  waste  matter  —  mostly,  if  not  completely  indigestible. 

151.     Principal  Elements  Can  Mutually  Assist  Each  Other. —  The 

principal  food  elements,  though  having  each  its  special  function,  are  not  wholly 
independent.  Within  limits  they  may  be  said  to  be  able,  on  occasion,  to  do 
each  other's  work.  The  relations  of  fats  and  carbohydrates  have  been  indi- 
cated. Carbohydrates  are  cheap  fuels  for  ordinary  use.  Fats  are  expensive 
fuels  for  emergency  use.  Any  deficiency  of  carbohydrates  and  fats  in  a  ration 
will  be  at  least  partially  made  up  by  the  diversion  of  a  part  of  the  protein  from 
its  proper  function.  With  a  sufficiency  of  carbonaceous  matter,  the  entire 
consumption  of  protein  is  available  for  growth  and  maintenance.  Further  than 
this,  a  deficiency  of  protein  is  not  made  up  from  the  other  elements.  Scientific 
opinion  as  to  the  effects  of  feeding  the  various  elements  to  excess  is  not  unani- 
mous, nor  are  any  of  its  expressions  decided  enough  to  be  taken  as  authoritative , 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT.  1 1 1 

It  is  said  that  an  excess  of  carbohydrates  pours  through  the  system  undigested. 
That  supposition  is  contrary  to  the  known  effects  of  feeding  heavily  of  carbon- 
aceous matter.  The  immediate  consequence  of  feeding  fat  to  excess  is  scour- 
ing. Some  authorities  on  feeding  say  all  the  protein  taken  into  the  system  is 
used  :  i.  e.  —  an  excess  of  protein  is  impossible.  But  this  is  not  in  accordance 
with  practical  experience  in  feeding  "  narrow"  or  highly  nitrogenous  rations. 
Experience  teaches  that  such  rations  cause  digestive  troubles  as  surely,  if  not 
as  quickly,  as  an  excess  of  fats. 

152.  Food  Values. —  There  are  two  standards  of  measurements  of  food 
values  : 

(i).  The  measurement  of  quality,  of  proportionate  value  of  principal  ele- 
ments :  —  NUTRITIVE  RATIO. 

(2).  The  measure  of  bulk,  of  content,  of  degree  of  concentration,  of  total 
heating  capacity  :  —  POTENTIAL  ENERGY. 

The  NUTRITIVE  RATIO  of  a  food  (single  article  or  mixture)  is  the  ratio  of 
its  proteids  to  its  carbohydrates  and  fats,  reduced  to  terms  of  carbohydrates ;  — 
one  part  of  fat  by  weight  having  a  fuel  value  two  and  one-half  times  as  great 
as  an  equal  weight  of  carbohydrates.  The  chemical  analysis  of  a  food  being 
known,  the  nutritive  ratio  is  determined  thus,  taking  corn  as  the  example  : 

Corn  (see  table,  f  153)  contains  10.4  parts  protein,  70.3  parts  carbohydrates, 
5  parts  fat :  its  nutritive  ratio  is  : 

10.4:  7o-3+(5X2.5)  =  i:  7.9. 

The  POTENTIAL  ENERGY  of  a  food  is  the  gross  fuel  value  of  its  digestible 
matter.  It  is  expressed  in  calories  per  ounce.  A  calory  is  the  amount  of 
heat  required  to  raise  one  gram  of  water  one  degree  centigrade.  One  ounce 
of  carbohydrates  or  protein  has  a  potential  energy  of  one  hundred  and  sixteen 
calories.  One  ounce  of  fat  has  a  potential  energy  of  two  hundred  and  sixty- 
four  calories.  The  potential  energy  of  any  food  substance  of  which  the 
chemical  composition  is  known  is  calculated  thus,  taking  corn  again  as  the 
example,  and  using  the  figures  in  the  table  as  percentages  of  an  ounce : 
(  264  X. 05) -K-703-)-.  1 04)  116  =  106. 

The  nutritive  ratio  and  potential  energy  of  each  single  article  may,  when 
computing  values  of  compound  foods,  or  of  rations,  be  regarded  as  constant 
quantities.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  they  vary  greatly  in  different  samples  of  the 
same  article,  but  calculations  from  the  figures  in  the  table,  which  are  averages 
of  a  large  number  of  analyses,  may  properly  be  assumed  to  give  the  average 
and  usual  values  of  the  different  foods. 

The  values  of  a  ration  vary  with  its  ingredients,  and  are  calculated  from 
averages  of  the  values  of  the  ingredients.  (See  ^158). 


2  POULTRT-CRAF7\ 

153.     Table  of  Analyses  and  Computed  Values  of  Food  Stuffs.* 


FOODS. 

Gross 
contents, 
percentages. 

Composition  of  dry  matter,  in 
percentages  of  the  whole. 

Valuation. 

u 

<u 

I 

ju 
+2 

C0 

S 

b 

Q 

1 

fci 

,c 

t* 

c 

•  »-4 

u 

I 

H 

S 
o| 
|S 

u 

£ 

<u 
•~.2 

'C     CJ 

3* 
Z 

-i- 

3  £5 
gl 
P 

Corn  (Maize)   and   Corn 
Products. 
Field  corn  

IO.Q 

8.8 
10.7 

35-7 

89.1 
91.2 
89-3 

64-3 

87  7 

2.8 

1.8 

I.O 

i-S 

1.9 

i-5 

0.9 

i-3 
1.4 

i-5 
4.0 

2-5 

0.7 
3-° 

1.8 
2.9 
0.7 
5-8 
3-3 

l°i 

II.  2 

?:! 

9.2 

9.8 

9-3 
29.4 
6.1 

11.9 
12.5 

IO.O 

15-4 
15.6 
6.9 

n.S 
14.7 

& 

20.  o 
12.4 

12.2 
10.5 
23.2 

5-4 
19.9 
27.4 

IO.O 

4.8 

17.1 
28.9 

10.6 
14.7 

70.3 

66.8 
69.2 

50.7 
73  -9t 
68.7 
64.8 
64.0 
64-5 
52.4 

22.  0 

71.9 
65.1 

75-o 
53-9 
60.4 
44.2 

59-7 
67.4 

57-9 
56.3 
56.2 

69.8 
61.6 
66.3 

48-5 
12.5 

5i-7 
36.1 

64-5 
83.1 
46.4 
41.9 

£5 

5-° 

8.1 

5-2 

3-5 
3-9 
3-8 

3-5 

7-4 

|;3 

6.3 

3-1 

2.1 

3-o 

I.O 

4.0 
4.0 
o-5 

5-o 
7-i 

6.1 

7.6 

1.8 

2.6 

2.2 
1-7 

1.6 
5-6 

12.2 

2.2 

0.6 

4.4 
7-i 

i-7 

2.8 

7-9 
7-5 
7-3 

8.1 
9-5 

8.6 

8.4 
8.7 

2-3 

4.8 

6-3 

5-8 

7-7 
4.1 

4-7 
6.6 

6.1 
5-8 
8.9 
5-7 
3-7 

6 

$ 

i      2.3 
3 
i      3-3 
2.4 

i      7 
i    17 

i      3-3 

I        2.1 

i      7.2 
i      4.8 

106 
in 
107 

68 
103 

IOO 

94 
105 
108 
in 
30 

IO2 

97 

IOI 

90 
98 

61 
96 

xi3 

81 

96 

108 

IOO 

92 

1? 

24 

97 

J05 

83 
103 

85 

IOI 
IOO 

98 

Small  and  immature  ears 

15.0 

i5-i 
10.7 
n.  i 
9.6 
65-4 

10.5 
11.6 
12.4 
11.9 

12.  1 
31.2 

I  I.O 

7-9 

ii 

9.2 

10.9 
12.4 
11.9 

IO.2 

75-7 

8.2 

5-o 

12.6 

10.6 
14.0 
13.2 

n.6 
ii.6 

85.0 
84.9 

&i 
90.4 
34-6 

87^6 

88.1 

89.0 
92.1 

92.3 
91.8 
90.8 

89.1 
87.6 
88.1 
89.8 

24-3 
91.8 

95-o 

87.4 
89.4 
86.0 
86.8 

88.4 
88.4 

1.9 
6.6 

34:s 

1.6 
3-i 

1.8 
4.9 
0.9 
0.9 
4.6 

Gluten  meal  •  

Starch  feed  (wet) 

Wheat  and  Wheat  Prod- 
ucts. 
Wheat  

\Vheat  screenings  

Low  grade  flour  

\Vheat  bran  

Wheat  middlings  

Oats  and  Oat  Products. 
Oats  

9-5 
0.9 

19-3 
12.5 

3-8 

2-7 

I'6 

6-5 
10.7 

3-8 

II.  O 

8.0 

8.7 

o-3 
14.7 
4.1 

i-7 
3-5 

3-° 

2.0 

3-7 

4.2 

3-2 

'1 

2.6 

5.7 

I.O 

3.6 

"•3 

2.0 

0.6 

3-4 

4.8 

?3 

3-6 

Oat  meal  

Oat  bran  

Oat  feed  

Barley  and  Barley  Prod- 
ucts. 
Barley  

Barley  meal  

\Ialt  sprouts  

Brewers'  grains  (wet)  
Brewers'  grains  (dry)  
Distillers'  waste  

Buck-wheat      and     Buck- 
wheat Products. 
Buckwheat  

Buckwheat  groats  11  
Buckwheat  bran  .... 

Buckwheat  middlings  .  .  . 

Rye  and  Rye  Products. 
Rye  

Rye  bran  •        • 

*  The  analyses  here  given  are  taken  principally  from  United  States  Government  Bu 
J  Including  fiber.  §  Baltimore  meal.  ||  Hulled  or  crushed  buckwheat. 


lletins. 


t In  one  ounce. 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 

Analyses   and   Computed   Values   of  Food   Stuffs.  —  Continued. 


FOODS. 

Gross 
contents, 
percentages. 

Composition  of  dry  matter,  in 
percentages  of  the  whole. 

Valuation. 

OJ 

1 

h 

<u 
rt 

£ 
>> 

Q 

1 

£ 

43 

00 
< 

c 

I 

BO 

V 

eS 

o£ 
•p  ^ 
5  -a 
U 

rt 

&H 

u 

•-  ° 

12 

% 

«*& 
|l 

£w 

Mixed  Feeds. 
Ground    corn     and     oats 

11.9 

»-s 

10.4 

9.4 

12.8 

13.2 
14.1 

i3-5 
14.8 

7-9 
7.6 

'3-5 
8.0 
13.8 
n.8 
8.1 
9.2 

IO.I 
8.2 

10.4 
8.0 
12.4 
9-7 

8.2 
10.0 

II.  I 
7-i 

J5-3 
9-7 
8.4 
13.2 

76.4 
90-5 
H-5 
90.0 
91.0 

95-9 
92.4 

SS.i 

88.5 
89.6 

90.6 

87.2 
86.8 

85-9 
86.5 
85-2 
92.1 

92.0 

88^2 
91.9 
91.8 
89.9 
91.8 
89.6 
92.0 
87.6 

90.3 
91.8 

92.9 

84.7 

90.3 
91.6 
86.8 

23.6 
9-5 
85.5 

10.0 

9.0 
4.1 
7.6 

2.2 

2.7 
1.9 

3-1 

2.1 

1.6 

2.0 
2.1 

4-3 
i-5 

i-7 

3-o 

2.0 

3-9 
3-4 

4-7 

3 

1:1 

3-0 
0.4 

10.0 

13.2 
6.7 
3-2 
6-3 

6.2 

8-3 
7-4 
4-4 

2.4 
1.4 
o-S 

O.I 
O.I 

0.8 
1.9 

9.6 

10.6 
10.6 

13.0 

s 

9-7 
10.6 
9.6 
9.0 
12.7 

10.0 

19.4 
21.7 

21.6 

32.9 

33-2 
42-3 
4.0 
13.0 

7-4 

12.  1 

3-6 
11.7 
10.6 
14.4 

12.3 
15-7 
H-3 
5-9 

2-3 

2.4 

2-5 
0.8 

I.O 
2.1 

7i.9t 

yi.at 

73-7t 

58.8 

70.0 

7'-3 

64.7 
64.2 
5».9 
75-5 
76.0 
58.0 
45-o 
10.4 
19.6 
27.9 
35-4 
38.4 
23.6 
36.6 

23-9 
79.2 

49-9 
38.6 
58.0 

63-5 
42.8 

38.1 

39-3 

42.7 

45-o 

13-8 
3-9 
7-3 

2-3 

3-° 
1.6 
2.4 

4-4 

4.0 
3-4 

5-3 

3-6 
3-8 
3-5 
3-6 

2.7 

3-7 
4.2 

3-3 

21.0 
42.5 

35-6 
30-4 
7-9 
3-o 
i3-i 

2.O 
23-6 
0.4 

8.8 
0.7 
7-3 
2-5 
24.0 

3-3 
2.9 

2.2 
2-5 

I.O 

0.4 

0.6 
°-3 

O.2 
0.2 
0-5 

l  :     8.6 

i:     7-6 

i:     7.4 

1  :     5-5 
i       8.6 

;  # 

1:1 

8.8 
9.6 

5-2 

il 

is 

i-7 

1.4 

*-3 
IO.I 

I   6.3 

i    10.9 
i      5-9 

I      II.  2 
I        6.5 
I        6.5 

i      7 

i      3-7 
i      2.9 

1      3-4 
i      8.7 

i      7 

I        2 

i      3-5 
i      2.3 

i      2.7 

I         2.1 
I         1.7 

106 

105 
106 

97 

102 
102 

95 

110 

83 

119 

147 

141 

137 

99 

91 
in 

52 
105 

101 

82 
129 

67 

7i 

& 

IS 

8 

i3 
8 

i 

Corn    and    bran  feed,    8 
parts    corn,    5    parts 

"  Provender,"      450     Ibs. 
corn,    125    Ibs.    oats, 

10.4 

2.6 

1.8 

7-i 
6.9 
8.7 
1.8 
i-5 
9-5 
14.0 

10.0 

7-9 
7-3 
8.9 

9-5 
5-6 

£2 

0.2 

9-5 
35-7 
6-3 
9.2 

5-4 

24.8 
24.1 
25.0 
29.0 

4.1 
i-5 

Miscellaneous. 

Broom  corn  seed  meal-  .  . 
Sorghum,  chicken  corn.. 

Millet 

Flaxseed  

Linseed  meal,  old  process 
Linseed  meal,  new  process 
Cotton  seed  meal  

Sunflower  seed  
Rice       •  •  • 

Rice  hulls  

Rice  (flour)  polish  

Cockle  bran  

Dry  Hay. 

Alfalfa 

Timothy  •     •  • 

Grass  and  Tops. 
Green  grass,  clippings.  .. 

Lettuce                  

o-S 
0.7 

Spinach  

*  In  one  ounce,     f  Including  fiber.     J  Also,  durra  and  dari,  akin  to  Kaffir  corn  and  Millo  maize. 


1 1 4  POULTR  r-  CRAFT. 

Analyses  and  Computed  Values  of  Food  Stuffs.  —  Continued. 


FOODS. 

Gross 
contents, 
percentages. 

Composition  of  dry  matter,  in 
pei'centages  of  the  whole. 

Valuation. 

Water. 

5 
« 

^ 

•„ 

p 

1 

£ 

JZ 

tt> 
< 

Protein. 

(/) 

91 

« 

6-a 

1* 

U 

e 

Nutritive 
Ratio. 

Potential 
Energy.* 

Vegetables  —  Seeds. 
Peas  

13-4 
14.8 
10.5 
15.0 

I2.A 

10.8 

91-3 

84.1 
96.0 
93-5 

76.9 

78.9 
71.1 
88.5 
86.5 
90.9 

90-5 
88.6 
88.6 
81.0 
87.6 
10.9 

87.2 
90.4 
90.6 
90.1 

0;38 

6-7 

6.9 

86.8 
85.2 

89-5 
85.0 
87.6 
89.2 

8.7 
15-9 

,'.O 

t  5 

23.1 

21.  1 
28.9 

n-5 
J3-S 
9.1 

9-5 
11.4 
11.4 
19.0 
12.4 
89.1 

12.8 

9.6 
9.4 
9.9 

98.7 
99.2 

93-3 
93-i 

6.4 
4.i 

H-4 
3-2 

7*8 
4.8 

0.7 
0.9 
0.7 

I.O 

3-9 

0.6 

i-3 
0.9 
0.9 
0.9 

1.2 

r-3 

33 

0.7 

3-1 

2.4 

1:1 

3-i 
3-7 

4-7 

0.7 

0.2 
0-5 

0.6 

i-5 

I.O 
I.O 
I.O 

0.9 

I.I 
0.8 

1.2 
I.O 
I.O 

0.6 

3-8 

22.4 

20.8 
2O.2 
20.4 
22.2 

34-o 

I.O 
0.2 

0.8 

0.9 

6.0 

2.1 

•5 

•4 
.1 

.2 
.1 

.6 
•4 
3J-5 

3-5 
3-i 
2.9 

3-9 

58.0 

57-4 
65.1 
22.3 

52.6 
55-7 
5i-i 
56.7 

S2'J 

5-8 

H-3 

1.8 

3-9 

4.8 

17-3 
24.7 
8.0 
9.8 

5-5 

6.2 

7-5 
7.6 

8-5 
9.4 
46.9 

4.8 
4-7 
S-2 
4.0 

3-o 

1.4 

1.2 

1.6 
16.9 

0-5 
0-3 

0.2 
O.I 

6.9 
O.I 

0.4 

O.I 
O.I 
0.2 
0.2 
O.2 
0.4 

1.6 
o-3 
3-8 

1:1 

o-3 

I.O 

32.9 
39-6 
16.3 
16.5 

11 

2.6 

3 

2-5 

2.1 

7 

7i8 
4.6 

I         2 

I        8.3 
I7.I 

5-5 
5-5 
4-3 
6 
6.6 
7-8 
7.8 
7.2 
1.4 

4 

2 
2 

1.6 

1.4 
1*1 

0.6 

1.8 

85 
92 

85 
93 
90 

117 

9 

17 

6 
3i 

22 

31 
ii 
13 

8 
10 
ii 
15 
13 

100 

18 
ii 

IO 

II 

J54 
170 

Ji4 

69 

White  field  beans  

Vegetables  —  Fruits. 

Pumpkin,       seeds       and 

Vegetables  —  Roots. 
W^hite  potatoes     

Red  beets  

Milk. 

Whnlp  milk 

Skim  milk,  separated  
Rnttpvmilk 

Animal  Food. 

8.0 

2.2 

6.6 

24-5 

5-3 

*  In  one  ounce. 

154.     Working  Standards  of  Nutritive  and  Potential  Values.— The 

feeding  values,  as  determined  by  practical  results,  of  the  common  articles 
and  compounds  of  food  being  known;  the  average  proportions  and 
potencies  of  their  parts,  as  determined  by  chemists,  being  also  known ;  the 
determination  of  working  standards  of  nutritive  ratio  and  potential  energy 
becomes  a  simple  mathematical  calculation. 


POULTRY-CRAFT.  u5 

The  mash  described  in  ^[146,  (2),  has  —  computing  the  values  of  its  solids, 
the  amount  of  beef  scraps  being  doubled,  as  the  weight  of  milk  used  is  not 
known, —  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1:5.1;  a  potential  energy  of  99  calories  per 
ounce.  The  mixed  grain  fed  with  this  mash  has,  in  summer,  a  nutritive  ratio 
of  i  :  6.8 ;  a  potential  energy  of  95  :  in  winter,  a  nutritive  ratio  of  i  :  6.8 ;  a 
potential  energy  of  96.  The  means  of  these  values  may  fairly  be  taken  as  the 
values  of  the  complete  ration,  for  the  feed  of  green  stuff  given  at  noon  is  too 
light  to  materially  affect  the  values  of  the  ration  as  a  whole,  and  its  tendency  to 
reduce  these  values  is  offset  by  the  occasional  noon  feeds  of  grain  with  their 
tendency  to  increase  the  values.  The  mean  values  are  for  the  summer  ration 
nutritive  ratio  1:5.9;  potential  energy  97;  for  the  winter  ration,  nutritive 
ratio  i  :6;  potential  energy  97.5. 

Wheat,  the  best  grain  for  poultry,  itself  a  practically  complete  grain  ration,, 
has  a  nutritive  ratio  of  i  :  6.3 ;  a  potential  energy  of  102.  Barley,  the  next 
best  grain,  has  a  nutritive  ratio  of  i  :  6 ;  a  potential  energy  of  100.  A  mixture 
of  corn  and  wheat,  equal  parts,  has  a  nutritive  ratio  of  i  :  7.1  ;  a  potential 
energy  of  104.  A  mash  of  3  parts  corn  meal  to  i  part  shorts,  recommended 
by  one  of  the  highest  authorities,  on  feeding  (Rankin),  to  use  with  wheat  and 
corn  as  a  food  for  young  chicks,  has  a  nutritive  ratio  of  i  :  7  ;  a  potential  energy 
of  100.  (The  green  food  used  with  that  ration  would  slightly  narrow  the  ratio 
and  reduce  the  energy).  Germ  meal,  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  ground  oats, 
corn,  barley  and  wheat,  has  a  nutritive  ratio  of  i  :6.6;  a  potential  energy  of 
101.  A  mixture  of  bran,  corn  meal  and  oat  meal,  equal  parts,  has  a  nutritive 
ratio  of  i  :5-5;  a  potential  energy  of  101.  The  mixture  (see  f  146  (5)  )  of 
100  Ibs.  bran,  75  Ibs.  corn,  100  Ibs.  oats,  50  Ibs.  linseed  meal,  has  a  nutritive 
ratio  of  i  :  5.5  ;  a  potential  energy  of  100.  "  Excelsior  Meal "  (see  ^[146  (24)  ) 
has  a  nutritive  ratio  of  i  :  6 ;  a  potential  energy  of  101. 

The  averages  of  these  values  giveybr  the  standard  of  Nutritive  Ratio, 
i :  6  ;  for  the  standard  of  Potential  Energy  100  calories  per  ounce.* 

Computed  values  of  approved  fattening  rations  give  a  standard  for  nutritive 
ratio,  i  :  8;  for  potential  energy,  108. 

*NOTE. — The  method  which  arrives  at  these  standards  is,  perhaps,  shirt-sleeves  science. 
It  is  more  accurate,  none  the  less,  than  the  more  formal  method  of  those  who  may  rightly 
be  called  the  founders  of  the  science  of  poultry  feeding.  This  practical  tests  will  show. 
The  trouble  with  students  of  the  science  of  poultry  feeding,  has  been  that  they  were 
better  scientists  than  poultry  men,  and  have  been  establishing  standards  and  deducing 
principles  from  the  data  of  experiments,  which,  from  a  practical  standpoint,  were  partial 
failures.  Such  standards  as,  nutritive  ratio  i :  3.5  for  young  chicks  ;  i :  4  for  laying  hens  ; 
i  :6for  special  fattening  ;  with  potential  energies  ranging  from  50  to  90,  are  not  practi- 
cable. The  feeder  learns  this  as  soon  as  he  begins  to  use  them.  They  were  suggested 
by  false  analogies  from  cattle  feeding  standards.  Milk,  which  is  a  perfect  food  —  for  a 
young  calf  —  has  a  nutritive  ratio  of  i  :  4.  The  chicks'  digestive  organs  are  adapted  to  a 
concentrated  food  :  therefore  —  it  was  reasoned  —  the  nutritive  ratio  for  chicks  must  be 
narrower.  The  contrary  of  this  proposition  is  true  :  the  nutritive  ratio  of  a  concentrated 
food  must  be  WIDER  than  of  a  bulky  food.  The  reasons  for  this  need  not  be  given  here. 
The  fact  can  be  verified  by  examining  the  table.  It  will  appear-that  natural  foods  having 


1 1 6  POULTR  r-  CRAFT. 

155.  Use  of  Feeding  Standards. —  The   practical  value  of  a  scientific 
knowledge  of  feeding  is  that  it  enables  a  feeder  to  make  up  his  ration  "  in  the 
rough"  with  absolute  certainty  that  he  has  made  no  radical  error  —  none  that 
will  not  in  the  natural  course  of  things  soon  be  adjusted.      A  ration  based  on 
(not  necessarily  adhering  rigidly  to)  a  correct  standard  is,  in   the  hands  of 
a  skillful   feeder,    practically   self-adjusting.     The    calculations   of  values    in 
approved  rations  show  that  for  ordinary  purposes  variations  from  the  standard, 
if  made  at  all,  need  be  but  very  slight ;  for  the  differences  between  supply  and 
demand    are    not  usually  greater  than  will  be  controlled  by  the  involuntary 
adjustments  of  the  natural  checks  and  balances,  viz. : — the  limited  capacity  of 
the  digestive  organs ;  the  sense  of  taste,  the  instincts  of  hunger,  the  natural 
cravings  of  a  healthy  appetite  for  the  food  articles  best  suited  to  meet  present 
requirements  of  the  system  ;  the  convertibility  of  the  principal  food  elements  ; 
the  tendency  of  the  fowl's  system  to  make  the  most  of  the  food  taken,  expend- 
ing   some    in   egg  production,  using  some   for  growth,  storing  some  as  fat, 
squandering  some  as  exuberant  energy  —  these  are  all  constantly  working  to 
bring  about  a  proper  balance  of  means  and  results,  and  the  feeder's  part  must 
be  very  badly  done,  indeed,  if  they  fail. 

156.  Extent  of  Actual  Variations,  from  the  Standards,  in  Complete 
Rations. —  The  system's  demands  for  material  for  growth,  or  maintenance, 
and  strength,  are,  on  the  whole,  very  nearly  constant  for  mature  fowls,  and 
uniformly  increasing  for  chicks.      Fluctuations  in  food  requirements  are  due 
principally  to  variations  in  the  amount  of  heat  required  to  keep  the  body  warm. 
The  standards  of  ratio  and  energy  ascertained  are  for  average  conditions,  such 
as  obtain  generally  in  moderate  weather,  and  in  warm  houses  in  cold  weather. 
Under  such  conditions  the  values  of  the  grain  ration  are  the  values  of  the 
whole  ration,  the  small  quantities  of  vegetables  and  meat  eaten  affecting  it  but 
little.      In  summer  the  food  actually  consumed  by  a  properly  fed  fowl  would 
have  a  narrower  nutritive  ratio  than  i  :  6,  and  potential  energy  lower  than  100. 
The  reduction  would  follow  reduction  in  the  quantity  of  the  grain  ration,  and 
large   increase  in  the  quantity  of  vegetables  eaten,  and  would  be  governed 
solely   by  the   appetites   of  the   fowls.     In   winter  the   heat   of  the  body  is 
maintained  partly  by  feeding  more  heating  foods,  but  mostly  by  warm  housing 
and  by  giving  the  food  and  drink  warm.    The  actual  variation  of  a  ration  from 

narrow  nutritive  ratios  are  bulky  foods,  diluted  either  with  water  or  with  fiber.  Low 
potential  energies  are  for  hot-house  conditions.  Narrow  nutritive  ratios  are  extravagant. 
Protein  is  the  rarest  and  most  costly  food  element.  If  one  feeder  uses  a  ration  with  a 
nutritive  ratio  of  i  :  4,  and  another  a  ration  with  a  nutritive  ratio  of  i  :  6,  the  general  con- 
ditions and  the  results  in  both  cases  being  alike,  the  inevitable  conclusion  is  that  the  wider 
ratio  furnished,  at  least,  as  much  protein  as  the  system  needed,  and  that  one-third  of  the 
protein  of  the  narrower  ration  was  used  for  fuel.  It  would  be  no  easy  matter  to  find  a 
ration  compounded  with  a  view  to  cheapness  and  the  best  all  round  results,  and  proved 
by  long  practical  tests,  which  would,  when  computed,  show  a  nutritive  ratio  anything 
like  as  narrow  as  1:4,  or  a  potential  energy  lower  than  90,  except,  possibly,  in 
extremely  hot  weather. 


POULTRY-CRAFT.  117 

the  standard  is  much  greater  in  warm  weather  than  in  cold.  Computations 
for  summer  rations,  in  the  hottest  weather,  would,  without  doubt,  sometimes 
show  nutritive  ratio  as  narrow  as  1:4,  and  potential  energy  as  low  as  50 ; — 
but  not  very  often.  Computations  of  good  winter  rations,  for  rather  cold 
houses,  would  rarely  show  values  exceeding  those  of  the  average  fattening 
ration. 

157.  The  Balance  of  the  Ration. — It  is  clear  that  a  ration  can  be  exactly 
balanced  only  at  rare  intervals,  and  then,  as  it  were,  only  for  the  instant.    Then 
if  the  ration  is  sufficient  in  quantity,  there  must  be  excess  of  either  one  kind  of 
elements  or  the  other.     For  economic  reasons  it  is  desirable  that  the  excess  be 
of  the  cheaper  elements  —  the  carbohydrates.     The  ration  should  always  be  a 
little  wide,  rather  than  a  little  narrow. 

158.  Examples  in  Balancing  Rations:  — 

(i).    To  compute  the  values  of  the  ration  described  in  ^[146  (2)  : 
Corn  contains  (see  table,  ^[  153)   10.4%   protein,  70.3%  carbohydrates,  5% 
fat;    wheat,   11.9%    protein,    71.9%  carbohydrates,    2.1%    fat;    bran,    15.4% 
protein,  53.9%  carbohydrates,  4%  fat;  beef  scraps,  58%  protein,  32.9%  fat; 
then 

Protein  Carbohydrates  Fats 

Ibs.  Ibs.  Ibs. 

94  Ibs.  corn  contain                                             9.77  66.08  4.7 

106  Ibs.  oats  contain                                           12.5  63.28  5.3 

100  Ibs.  bran  contain                                         15.4  53.9  4. 

12  Ibs.  beef  scraps  contain                               6.96  ....  3.94 

312  Ibs.  mixture  contain  44-63  183.26  17-94 

and  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the  mash  is : 

44.63  :  (17.94X2.5)4-183.26  =  i  :  5.1  ; 
and  potential  energy  for  312  Ibs.  is : 

( 1 7.94X16 X264)+[ (44.63X183.26)    16X116]    =  494.208   calories, 
and  potential  energy  per  oz.  is  99  calories. 

The  computation  of  the  whole  grain  given  in  this  ration  gives  :  — 

Protein  Carbohydrates  Fats 

Ibs.  Ibs.  Ibs. 

120  Ibs.  wheat  contain  14.28  86.40  2.52 

64  Ibs.  oats  contain  7.55  38.20  3.2 

120  Ibs.  buckwheat  contain  12.  77*4°  2.64 

56  Ibs.  corn  contain  5.82  39.36  2.8 


360  Ibs.  mixture  contain  39-6.5  241.36  11.16 

Nutritive  ratio,  i  :  6.8 ;  potential  energy,  95  calories  per  ounce. 


n8  POULTRY-CRAFT. 

Protein  Carbohydrates  Fats 

Ibs.  Ibs.  Ibs. 

(2). 

20  Ibs.  potatoes  contain  .42  3.46  .02 

10  Ibs.  oat  middlings  contain  2.  5.62  .76 

10  Ibs.  corn  meal  contain  .92  6.87  .38 

20  Ibs.  wheat  bran  contain  3.08  10.78  .8 

3  Ibs.  pork  scrap  contain  1.72  ....  1.18 

63  Ibs.  mixture  contain  8.14  26.73  3-H 

Nutritive  ratio,  1:4;  potential  energy,  75  calories  per  ounce. 

Fed  with  whole  corn,  one  feed  mash  one  feed  corn  per  day,  the  ration  has 
a  nutritive  ratio  of  i  :  5.9 ;  a  potential  energy  of  90  calories  per  ounce. 

Protein  Carbohydrates  Fats 

Ibs.  Ibs.  Ibs. 

(3>- 

5  Ibs.  alfalfa  hay  contain  .71  2.13  .11 

20  Ibs.  corn  meal  contain  1.84  *3'74  *76 

20  Ibs.  wheat  bran  contain  3.08  10.78  .8 

2  Ibs.  dried  blood  contain  1.3  .1  .33 

47  Ibs.  mixture  contain  6.93  26.75  2- 

Nutritive  ratio,  i  :  4.6 ;  potential  energy,  94  calories  per  ounce. 

This  fed  for  one-third  the  whole  ration,  the  other  two-thirds  being  corn  and 
oats  equal  parts,  gives  nutritive  ratio,  i  :  6.1  ;  potential  energy,  101  calories  per 
ounce.  Fed  with  whole  corn  equal  parts,  it  gives,  nutritive  ratio,  i:  6.1; 
potential  energy,  100  calories  per  ounce. 

Protein  Carbohydrates  Fats 

Ibs.  Ibs.  Ibs. 

(4)- 

5  Ibs.  cut  clover  contain  .61                    1.9  .16 

5  Ibs.  cotton  seed  meal  contain  2.11                    1.18  .65 

20  Ibs.  corn  meal  contain  1.84  J3-74  -76 

20  Ibs.  wheat  bran  contain  3.08  10.78  .8  ' 

50  Ibs.  mixture  contain  7.64  27.60  2.37 

Nutritive  ratio,  i  :  4.4 ;  potential  energy,  94  calories  per  ounce. 

Fed  with  corn  equal  parts,  gives  nutritive  ratio,  i  :  6.1  ;  potential  energy, 
100  calories  per  ounce. 

Fed  with  grain  one-third  rice,  two-thirds  corn,  gives  nutritive  ratio,  1:7-1; 
potential  energy,  100  calories  per  ounce. 

In  making  trial  formulas  for  rations,  the  simplest  method  is  to  write 
the  formula  for  parts,  by  weight;  i  part  being  always  I  ounce,  as  in  the 
following  examples : 


POULTRY-CRAFT.  119 


(5)- 

i  part  buckwheat  middlings  contains 
i  part  corn  meal  contains 
i  part  wheat  bran  contains 

Protein 
ozs. 

.289 
.092 

•154 

Carbohydrates 
ozs. 

.419 

.687 

•539 

Fats 
ozs. 

.071 
.038! 
.04 

3  ounces  of  mixture  contain 
i  ounce  of  mixture  contains 

•535 

1.645 

.149 

.178 

.548 

.049 

Nutritive  ratio,  i  :  3.8  ;  potential  energy 

,  97  calories  per  ounce. 

With  corn  equal  weight,  nutritive  ratio, 

1:5.8; 

potential  energy, 

101  calories 

per  ounce.    . 

(6). 
i  part  buckwheat  middlings  contains 
2  parts  corn  meal  contain 
2  parts  wheat  bran  contain 

Protein 
ozs. 

.289 
.184 
.308 

Carbohydrates 
ozs. 

.419 

1-374 
1.078 

Fats 
ozs. 

.071 
.076 
.08 

5  ounces  of  mixture  contain 
i  ounce  of  mixture  contains 

.781 

2.871 

.227 

.26 

•957 

•075 

Nutritive  ratio,  i  :  4.4 ;  potential  energy,  97.5  calories  per  ounce. 

With    corn   equal   weights,  nutritive  ratio,    i  :   6.1  ;   potential  energy,    101 
calories  per  ounce. 

Protein  Carbohydrates  Fats 

ozs.  ozs.  ozs. 

(7). 

1  part  buckwheat  middlings  contains             .289  .419  .071 
3  parts  corn  meal  contain                                 .276  2.061  .114 

2  parts  wheat  bran  contain                               .308  1.078  .08 

6  ounces  of  mixture  contain                             .873  3-558  .265 

i  ounce  of  mixture  contains                             .145  .593  .044 

Nutritive  ratio,  i  :  4.8 ;  potential  energy,  97  calories  per  ounce. 

With  whole  corn,  nutritive  ratio,  i  :  6.3 ;  potential  energy,  101  calories  per 
ounce. 

Protein  Carbohydrates  Fats 

ozs.  ozs.  ozs. 

(8). 

3  parts  dry  bread  contain                                  .207  1.326  .01 

1  part  wheat  middlings  contains                       .156  .604  .04 

2  parts  corn  meal  contain                                 .184  1-374  -076 

6  ounces  of  mixture  contain                             .547  3-304  .126 


i  ounce  of  mixture  contains  .091  .55  .021 

Nutritive  ratio,  i  :  6.6;  potential  energy,  70  calories  per  ounce. 


i2o  POULTRT-CRAFT. 

159.  Hints  as  to  Changing  the  Values  of  a  Ration,  the  Bulk 
Remaining  the  Same  :  — 

To  reduce  the  potential  energy  of  a  ration  'without  materially  changing 
its  nutritive  ratio :  —  add  substances  having  nearly  standard  nutritive  ratios 
and  low  potential  energies; — for  slight  reductions  hard  grains,  buckwheat, 
oats,  chicken  corn,  etc. ;  for  considerable  reductions,  such  vegetables  as  beets, 
turnips,  carrots,  etc. 

To  slightly  reduce  the  potential  energy,  and  make  the  nutritive  ratio 
narrower: — add  raw  meat,  green  cut  bone,  peas,  beans,  hay  (clover, 
alfalfa),  having  narrow  nutritive  ratios  and  low  potential  energies. 

To  considerably  reduce  the  potential  energy,  and  narrow  the  nutritive 
ratio:  —  add  green  vegetables  —  tops,  skim  milk,  having  narrow  nutritive 
ratios  and  very  low  potential  energies. 

To  reduce  the  potential  energy  while  widening  the  nutritive  ratio:  — 
add  potatoes,  or  apples ;  wide  nutritive  ratio  with  low  potential  energy. 

To  increase  the  potential  energy,  and  narrow  the  nutritive  ratio :  —  add 
dry  animal  foods,  which  have  very  narrow  nutritive  ratio  with  high  potential 
energy. 

To  increase  the  potential  energy ,  the  nutritive  ratio  remaining  Jixed :  — 
add  substances  rich  in  both  protein  and  oil,  nearly  standard  nutritive  ratios 
with  very  high  potential  energies,  as  flaxseed,  ground  linseed. 

The  above  propositions  will  be  found  useful  guides  in  varying  standard 
rations  for  special  feeding,  and  also  in  bringing  ill-balanced  rations  to  the 
standard.  They  are  stated  with  special  reference  to  variety  in  rations.  In 
general  feeding  the  necessary  changes  can  be  made  by  varying  the  proportions 
of  the  articles  used  in  a  ration,  as  illustrated  in  some  of  the  examples  in  ^[158  ; 
and  in  general,  if  the  grain  ration  is  nearly  standard,  and  feeding  regulated  as 
suggested  in  If  138,  the  ration  as  a  whole  will  be  as  nearly  balanced  as  it  can  be. 


POULTRY-CRAFT.  121 


CHAPTER    IX. 


Egg  Production. 

160.     Introductory. —  The   Objective   Point   in    Egg    Production. — 

The  final  object  of  practical  egg  production  is  profit.  A  producer's  profit  is 
the  difference  between  the  cost  of  production  and  his  selling  price.  As  the 
difference  between  two  small  quantities  may  be  greater  than  the  difference 
between  two  larger  quantities,  so  the  profit  on  a  comparatively  small  egg 
yield  which  costs  little  or  nothing,  may  be  greater  than  the  profit  on  a  large 
egg  yield  secured  at  considerable  expense.  Simple  as  this  proposition  is, 
and  self-evident  to  everyone  who  stops  to  think  about  it,  it  needs  to  be 
emphasized  here  because  of  the  prevalent  mistaken  notion  that  successful, 
profitable  egg  production  depends  on  making  hens  lay  as  many  eggs  as 
possible  in  a  short  time ;  and,  therefore,  every  poultry  keeper  should  use  all 
means  to  secure  an  extraordinarily  large  egg  yield. 

As  stated  in  ^[  18,  the  bulk  of  the  egg  supply  in  this  country  comes  from 
hens  kept  under  such  conditions  that  the  entire  receipts  for  poultry  products 
sold  are  profit, —  the  produce  consumed  at  home  fully  paying  for  the  salable 
food  given  the  fowls  and  the  little  time  spent  in  looking  after  them.  Most 
of  these  small  flocks  of  hens  are  productive  only  during  the  spring,  summer, 
and  early  fall,  when  the  conditions  generally  are  favorable  to  egg  production 
from  hens  kept  in  a  semi-natural  state — as  they  are  on  most  farms  and 
village  lots.  By  giving  them  special  care  during  the  remainder  of  the  year 
these  flocks  could  be  made  almost  constantly  productive.  Whether  it  would 
pay  their  keepers  to  give  them  the  necessary  extra  care,  is  a  question  for 
individual  decision.  As  it  costs  practically  nothing  to  keep  the  hens,  the  loss 
when  they  are  not  productive  is  not  an  actual  dead  loss  like  the  money  one 
who  has  to  buy  food  for  his  hens  pays  out  on  feed  bills  when  the  hens  ought 
to  be,  and  are  not,  laying.  Nearly  always  those  who  do  not  give  their  fowls 
good  care,  just  taking  the  egg  yield  as  it  comes,  would  find  it  more  profitable 
to  take  some  trouble,  and,  perhaps,  go  to  a  little  extra  expense  for  the  sake 
of  a  possible  considerable  increase  in  the  output  of  eggs  when  eggs  are  worth 
most ;  yet  it  is  a  good  plan,  before  making  arrangements  on  account  of  better 
laying,  to  reckon  up  and  see  whether  it  will  really  pay,  and  how  much  extra 


122  POULTR  T-  CRAFT. 

work  and  cost  the  probable  better  results  would  justify.  Once  in  a  while  an 
amateur  poultry  keeper  allows  his  efforts  to  make  a  few  hens  lay  to  take  time 
and  create  expense  not  warranted  by  the  best  possible  results. 

It  is  not  good  advice  to  every  poultry  keeper  to  urge  him,  by  all  means,  to 
get  the  largest  possible  egg  yield.  Those  who  make  a  business  of  producing 
market  eggs  must,  if  the  business  is  to  pay  its  way  and  make  the  living,  keep 
the  flocks  producing  nearly  all  the  time,  and  must  secure  high  average  yields 
of  eggs ;  but  even  for  such  it  is  a  question  whether  extraordinarily  large  egg 
yields  will  in  every  case  be  most  profitable.  It  should  be  a  part  of  a  poultry- 
man's  business  to  determine  this  point  in  accordance  with  his  circumstances, 
and  he  should  work  always  for  the  most  profitable  egg  yield  —  large  or  larger 
as  the  case  may  be  —  remembering  that  profit  is  measured  in  dollars  and  cents 
when  the  books  are  balanced,  and  remembering,  too,  that  it  is  often  easiest 
to  increase  profit  by  reducing  expenses. 

Of  amateur  poultry  keepers  whose  interest  centers  in  the  production  of  eggs, 
there  are  many  whose  regular  occupations  leave  them  time  to  give  a  few  hens 
as  much  care  as  will  keep  them  laying  fairly  well  under  favorable  conditions, 
but  will  not  admit  of  their  giving  the  fowls  the  careful  regular  attention 
necessary  to  secure  particularly  good  results  in  eggs.  There  is  a  limit  to 
what  any  person  can  do.  A  workingman,  a  business  man,  a  professional 
man  is  not  always  able  to  give  his  hens  the  little  extra  attention  required  for 
a  better  egg  yield  :  —  even  a  farmer's  ability  to  make  the  most  of  every 
opportunity  afforded  by  the  possession  of  land,  is  limited — though  some 
people,  not  farmers,  seem  to  think  otherwise.  It  is  the  easiest  thing  in  the 
world  to  plan  all  sorts  of  extra  work  —  for  other  people.  When  it  comes 
to  doing,  most  people  have  to  choose  between  one  thing  and  another,  and 
leave  the  less  important  thing  undone,  or  do  it  indifferently.  The  latter 
course  is  the  only  one  open  to  very  many  poultry  keepers.  Those  who  are 
wisest  get  what  good  they  can  out  of  their  fowls,  and  are  not  disgusted 
because  their  hens  do  not  lay  as  well  as  the  best.  Poultry  keeping  that  yields 
profit  with  little  trouble  deserves  consideration  as  well  as  that  which  is  made 
profitable  by  great  painstaking.  Many  who  are  not  able  to  give  hens  the  best 
care,  are  still  concerned  that  what  time  they  can  give  them  shall  be  used  to 
do  the  things  it  will  pay  best  to  do.  Many  whose  fowls  need  little  care  want 
to  know  enough  about  what  good  care  is  to  know  what  does  and  what  does 
not  constitute  neglect  under  the  conditions  to  which  their  fowls  are  subjected. 
However  little  time  the  reader  is  able  to  devote  to  his  fowls,  he  is  urged  to 
study  the  chapter  as  a  whole  ;  for  until  one  has  a  general  knowledge  of  the 
ways  and  means  of  handling  laying  stock,  he  cannot  determine  how  to  handle 
his  stock  most  satisfactorily. 

To  avoid  repetitions  the  text  of  the  chapter  is  adapted  to  business  poultry- 
men  making  a  specialty  of  market  eggs.  Information  and  suggestions  for 
other  classes  of  poultry  keepers  is  placed  in  parentheses,  or  given  in  the  foot 
notes. 


POULTRT-CRAFT.  123 

161.  What  is  a  Good  Egg  Yield  ? — There  are  ordinary,  extraordinary, 
and  VERY  EXTRAORDINARY  egg  yields. 

An  ordinary  egg  yield  is  from  six  to  ten  dozen  eggs  per  hen  per  year. 
An  extraordinary  yield  is  from  ten  to  fourteen  dozen  per  hen.  Anything 
over  fourteen  dozen  eggs  per  hen  is  a  very  extraordinary  egg  yield. 

Ordinary  egg  yields  are  obtained  from  average  fowls  under  the  general 
conditions  found  on  most  farms,  and  from  small  flocks  not  given  special 
attention.  Ordinary  egg  yields  from  flocks  handled  specially  for  heavy 
laying,  are  also  quite  common  when  unfavorable  weather  or  other  unavoidable 
contingency  depresses  the  yield.  The  figures  given  for  extraordinary  egg 
yields  indicate  the  normal  fluctuations  in  the  product  from  good  stock  well 
managed.  Skill  does  not  allow  it  to  remain  below  the  lower  figure,  and  can 
rarely  sustain  it  above  the  higher.  Whatever  may  be  said  of  the  desirability 
of  reaching  an  average  of  two  hundred  (or  more)  eggs  per  year  per  hen,  the 
cold  fact  is  that  a  twelve  dozen  per  hen  flock  is  an  uncommonly  good  bunch 
of  hens.  Its  record  speaks  well  for  its  management. 

162.  The  Early  Winter  Egg  Crop. —  Eggs  in  early  winter  are  usually 
the  feature  of  a  large  egg  yield,  though  very  prolific  layers  beginning  to  lay 
in  mid- winter  and  continuing  well  into  the  fall  can  easily  reach  a  high  mark. 
In  handling  hens  for  eggs  only,  it  is  in  every  way  desirable  to  get  the  hens 
to  laying  as  early  as  possible,  and  take  the  chances  of  keeping  them  laying. 
(Some  early  winter  layers  lack  staying  qualities,  and  are  poor  layers).     One 
who  keeps  fowls  for  eggs  ought  to  do  all  in  his  power  to  get  early  winter 
eggs,  but  need  not  feel  unduly  discouraged  if  his  best  plans  and  efforts  result 
sometimes  in  failure  —  total  or  partial  —  for  here  again  the  cold  facts  have 
consolation   and   encouragement   for   those   that  fail.      The  usual  condition 
through  November  and  December  is  that  the  hens  are  "  getting  ready  to  lay." 
The  beginning  of  the  season  of  good  laying  is  from  December  15  to  January 
15,  and,  as  has  been  said,  hens  beginning  then  can  do    highly   satisfactory 
work.     Beginners  in  egg  farming  commonly  think  that  by  selection,  breeding 
for  eggs,  and  feeding  for  eggs,  they  can  establish  a  strain  of  hens  that  will 
begin  laying  as  naturally  in  November  as  most  hens  do  three  or  four  months 
later.       Selection    and    management   help   to    get    stock   that   can  be  put  in 
condition  to  begin  laying  early  in  the  winter ;  but  there  are  some  very  potent 
factors  working  against  early  winter  egg  yields.     These  factors  are  :  unfavor- 
able weather,  which  may  be  expected  about  two  years  out  of  three  ;  and  the 
natural  reversionary  tendency  of  hens  not   to  lay  in  early  winter, —  this 
tendency  is  always  present,  and  acts  with  more  or  less  strength,  if  given  the 
least  opportunity.    Those  two  factors  can  put  up  a  combination  against  which 
all  the  good  breeding  and  skill  in  the  world  are  powerless,  unless  resort  is 
made  to  hot-house  conditions  for  laying  stock  —  a  cure  which,  in  the  end,  is 
worse  than  the  disease.       If  this  were  not  so  very  extraordinary  egg  yields 
and  good  egg  yields  in  November  and  December  would  be  the  rule  among 


i24  POULTRT-CRAFT. 

skilled  poultrymen  —  not  the  exception,  as  they  are  now.  When  all  is  said 
and  done,  the  condition  of  the  egg  crop  in  November  and  December  is  just  as 
dependent  on  the  weather  as  the  condition  of  the  wheat  crop  just  previous  to 
harvest.  The  weather  can  make  or  mar  it. 

163.  The  Factors  of  a  Good  Egg  Yield  are:    Good  stock,  comfortable 
quarters,  proper  food,  sufficient  exercise,  reasonable  cleanliness,  favorable 
weather. 

164.  Selecting  Laying  Stock. —  The  descriptions  of  fowls  in  Chapter 
V.    indicated    some   varieties  as  good  layers.      It  was  also  stated  that  hens 
Of  any  variety    might  be  made  good  layers.     Selection   of  laying  stock  for 
immediate  egg  production  must  take  account  of  stock  more  strictly  than  to 
accept  general  character  or  possible  development.     In  selecting  laying  hens 
of  unknown    individual  merit  —  as  must  nearly  always  be  done  —  the    only 
reliable  guide  is  the  laying  capacity  of  the  particular  stock  from  which  the 
hens  come.     Usually  this  mode  of  selection  gives  good  average  results.     To 
select    individual    good    layers    by   appearance  —  by    points  —  is    impossible. 
Prolificacy    is   entirely    independent   of    physical    structure,    (barring    some 
deformities) ,  and  also  independent  of  temperament.     If,  as  is  nearly  always 
the  case,  large  eggs  are  desired,  the  hens  selected  should  be : —  if  of  a  small 
breed,  large  of  their  kind ;   if  of  a  medium  sized  breed,  medium  to  large ;  for 
it  is  a  physical  impossibility  for  a  small  hen  to  be  a  very  prolific  layer  of 
large  eggs ;  and,  besides,  the  tendency  to  lay  eggs  large  out  of  proportion  to 
her  size  is  objectionable  in  a  hen,  because  rendering  her  peculiarly  subject  to 
trouble  in  extruding  her  eggs.    Moreover,  hens  small  of  their  kind  are  usually 
runts,  stunted,  ill-developed.     Medium  to  small  hens  of  the  large  breeds  lay 
eggs  as  large  as  need  be ;  but  hens  that  are  much  under  size  lack  the  staying 
qualities  of  better  developed  birds. 

165.  Exercise.* — What  Kind?  —  Fowls  at  liberty  take  exercise  princi- 
pally by  walking  and  by  scratching.     It  may  be  observed   that  when   they 
have  a  suitable  place  in  which  to  scratch  they  pass  much  of  the  time  there. 
This  propensity  to  scratch,  long  reckoned  the  hen's  peculiar  vice,  is  turned 
to  advantage  by  those  keeping  hens  in  confinement.     Without   the    littered 
scratching-feeding  floor,  keeping  hens  healthy  and  productive  in  confinement 
is  difficult.     With  this  provision  for  exercise,  hens  are  kept  in  perfect  health, 
at  the  highest  stage  of  productiveness, —  not  for  a  few  weeks  or  months,  but 
for  two  or  three  years,  during  which  they  may  never  once  leave  the  house 
and  small  yard  attached.     Further,  better  results,  in  eggs,  are  obtained  from 
hens  in  confinement  than  from  hens  at  liberty.     On  most  of  the  best  poultry 
plants  the  littered  scratching  floors  are  considered  indispensable. t 

*  NOTE. —  House  and  yard  accommodations  and   foods  were  considered  at  length  in 
preceding  chapters. 
t  NOTE. —  For  fowls  on  free  range,  or  in  good  large  yards —  in  addition  to  the  regular 


POULTRY-CRAFT.  125 

166.  How  Much  Exercise? — Poultry  keepers,  being  human,  are  prone 
to  go  to  extremes.  This  is  as  true  of  plain  poultrymen  with  their  methods, 
ideas  and  theories,  as  it  is  of  fanciers  with  their  devotion  to  points  of  form 
and  color,  and  perfection  of  development  of  non-essential  features.  Having 
tried  for  years  to  keep  fowls  in  confinement  without  adequate  provision  for 
exercise,  poultrymen  are  now,  very  generally,  compelling  too  much  exercise. 
To  keep  fowls  scratching  all  day  —  scratching  busily  for  all  the  grain  they 
get,  is  carrying  a  good  thing  too  far.  As  much  exercise  as  will  keep  them 
in  good  condition  is  needed ;  more  is  superfluous,  and,  therefore,  wasteful. 
Exercise  has  to  be  paid  for  if  food  is  paid  for.  The  amount  of  exercise 
needed  will  vary ;  it  can  easily  be  regulated  by  watching  the  condition  of  the 
hens.  At  any  age  a  fowl  in  good  condition  is  plump.  A  poor  thin  fowl 
has  no  reserve  force.  A  fowl  in  good  condition  will  be  kept  so  if  obliged  to 
scratch  about  one-third  of  the  day  for  one-third  of  its  food.  To  bring  a  poor 
fowl  up  in  condition,  the  proportion  of  food  secured  by  exercise  must  be 
reduced.  To  reduce  a  fat  fowl,  compel  more  exercise  —  even  going  so  far  as 
for  a  while  to  oblige  the  fowl  to  exercise  for  all  food,  and  to  go  hungry  as 
long  as  it  will  not  scratch.* 


167.  Exercise  for  Heavy  Fowls. — What  exercise  suits  a  Leghorn  does 
not  suit  a  Brahma  or  Cochin.  In  the  first  place,  the  Asiatics  do  not  need  as 
much  exercise  as  other  varieties,  and  in  just  walking  about  they  get  much 
more  of  what  exercise  they  need.  Even  in  small,  rather  bare  yards,  they 
keep  in  pretty  good  condition  without  special  exercise.  As  is  well  known, 
the  Asiatics  are  both  the  hardiest  of  fowls  and  the  best  suited  to  close  confine- 
ment. In  the  next  place,  scratching  is  harder  work  for  them  than  for  clean 
legged  fowls.  With  their  feathered  feet  and  legs  they  do  not  work  easily 
in  heavy  litter ;  so,  while  the  rule  of  one-third  of  a  day's  work  for  one-third 
of  a  day's  ration  can  be  applied  to  Asiatics,  it  is  necessary  to  so  litter  the 
floors  that  the  rule  will  work  right. 

fowl-yard  —  the  scratching  floor  is  not  absolutely  necessary,  and  may  even  be  superfluous 
if  the  hens  have  access  constantly  to  a  barnyard ;  but  unless  there  is  some  other 
convenient  sheltered  place  to  which  the  hens  can  resort  in  all  weathers,  it  is  best  to 
make  regular  provision  for  scratching  exercise  at  the  hen  house. 

*  NOTE. —  There  need  be  no  fear  of  injuring  a  fowl  by  this  process.  People  are  some- 
times too  tender  hearted  to  compel  a  lazy  fowl  to  work.  If  the  hens  miss  one  or  two 
meals  rather  than  work  for  their  food,  the  owners  take  pity  on  them,  and  feed  them  as 
usual.  This  is  a  common  case,  and  one  in  which  pity  needs  to  be  diluted  with  common 
sense.  The  truest  kindness  to  an  animal  is  to  keep  it  in  such  good  condition  that  it  will 
feel  like  working — taking  exercise,  and  when  it  gets  out  of  such  condition  to  put  it  in 
condition  again  at  once^ —  though  stringent  measures  be  required.  The  only  case  where 
an  overfat  fowl  ought  not  to  be  compelled  to  exercise  is  when  its  feet  are  so  sore  (scaly 
leg)  that  it  cannot  use  them.  In  this  not  uncommon  case  the  foot  disease  must  be 
tteated  first,  and  it  will  do  no  harm  to  diet  to  reduce  fat  at  the  same  time. 


126  POULTRT-CRAFT. 

168.  What   to   Use   for   Scratching    Litter. —  Straw  and   cheap  hay 
make  the  best  scratching  litter.     Those  who  grow  their  own  grain,  and  those 
who  can  get  sheaf  grain  sometimes  feed  it  unthreshed.     Dry  leaves,  raked  up 
in  the  fall  and  stored  to  be  used  as  needed,  make  good  litter,  but  break  up 
quickly,  and  are  not  as  easily  handled  as  straw.     On  a  large  plant  provision 
must  be   made  for  a   regular  supply  of   litter  in  quantity.     Sometimes  the 
rough  manure,  mostly  soiled  and  broken  straw  from  livery  stables,  can  be 
had  for  the  hauling.     It  usually  contains  more  than  enough  grain  to  pay  for 
hauling  it.     This  can  be  used  only  in  yards*  or  open  sheds.     Damp  litter 
should  never  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the  poultry  house, —  much  less  be  put 
there.     A  poultryman  who  can  get  the  old  bedding  from  a  race  track  stable 
should  consider  himself  in  luck,  for  it  is  nearly  all  good  clean  straw,  but  little 
broken  and   soiled,  and   contains   much  good  grain.     In   many  places  good 
straw  is  so  cheap  that  it  is  the  cheapest  litter  obtainable.     When  straw  costs 
from  five  to  eight  dollars  a  ton  it  is  time  for  those  who  use  much  to  look  for 
cheaper  stuff.     When  only  enough  litter  for  a   few   pens   is   needed,  baled 
straw,   (even  at  the  prices  named)   may  be  used.     Shavings  or  other  clean 
rubbish  —  almost  anything  that  conceals  the  grain,  and  can  be  "  scratched '," 
will  do. 

169.  To  Keep  a  Scratching  Floor  in  Good  Order  —  the  litter  must  be 
often  renewed,  and  yet  be  always  in  nearly  the  same  condition.     When  litter 
is  long  and  the  floor  thickly  covered  with  it,  it  takes  fowls  too  long  to  scratch 
out  their  grain  —  unless  a  considerable  excess  (over  what  is  needed  at  the 
time)  of  grain  is  thrown  into  the  litter.     Fowls  cannot  be  fed  evenly  in  this 
way.     If  the  litter  is  short  it  packs  together,  and  the  grain  is  not  hidden  when 
thrown  on  it.     Then,  unless  the  grain  is  raked  or  forked  into  the  litter, —  a 
tiresome    and   tedious    process,   and  unnecessary  when  the  floor  is  managed 
right  —  it  is  eaten  rapidly,  and  the  fowls  take  too  little  exercise.     Beginning 
with  a  clean  floor,  as  much  litter  should  be  put  in  as,  when  well  scattered  by 
the  fowls,  will  cover  the  floor  loosely  to  a  depth  of  four  or  five  inches.     As 
soon  as  this  is  so  broken  that  it  packs,  and  does  not  conceal  the  grain  scattered 
on  it,  a  little  more  should  be  added,  and  more,  and  more  at  regular  intervals, 
—  the  object  being  to  keep  four  or  five  inches  of  litter  of  such  length  that 
grain  thrown  on  it  is  nearly  all  hidden  at  once.     After  about  a  month  from 
the  time  the  first  litter  was  put  in,  the  coarser  stuff  on  top  should  be  raked  to 
one  side,  and  some  of  the  finely  broken,  dusty  stuff  next  the  floor  removed. 
Once  the  floor  is  filled  up  right  —  about  an  inch  of  fine  —  but  not  too  finely 
broken  —  litter  next  the  floor,  and  three  or  four  inches  of  coarse,  loose  litter 
above  it, —  it  can  be  kept  right  by  adding  long  litter  once  a  week  and  remov- 
ing broken  litter  about  once  a  month. t 

*  NOTE. —  Where  there  is  not  too  much  wet  and  snowy  weather  the  yard,  or  a  part  of 
it,  can  be  used  as  the  exercise-feeding  ground. 

t  NOTE. —  This  will  be  about  right  when  the  floor  space  is  five  to  six  feet  per  hen.    With 


POULTRY-CRAFT.  127 

170.  Cleanliness. —  Everything  about  a  poultry  plant  should  be  kept 
reasonably  clean  —  so  clean  that  there  are  no  offensive  sights  or  odors.  As  a 
rule  the  droppings  should  be  removed  daily.  Where  the  quantity  of  drop- 
pings to  be  removed  *ach  day  is  small  the  common  practice  is  to  clean  twice 
a  week,  or  once  a  week,  or  once  a  month.  This  is  not  a  good  plan.  It  does 
no  harm  to  let  the  droppings  boards  go  uncleaned  for  a  few  days,  occasionally, 
(at  least  it  does  no  noticeable  measurable  harm)  but  it  is  not  good  for  fowls 
to  sleep  nearly  always  with  their  heads  only  a  few  inches  above  an  accumula- 
tion of  their  own  excreta  —  and  the  lapse  from  daily  cleaning  ought  not  to  be 
permitted  to  occur  often.  It  should  be  the  inviolable  rule  to  take  up  the  drop- 
pings daily, —  in  winter,  when  the  hens  are  on  the  roosts  for  fourteen  or  fifteen 
hours  of  the  twenty-four  ;  in  damp  weather,  and  whenever  some  of  the  drop- 
pings have  the  peculiarly  offensive  odor  that  gives  warning  of  something 
going  wrong  in  the  digestive  system.  After  being  cleaned,  the  droppings 
boards  should  be  sprinkled  with  land  plaster,  road  dust,  sifted  coal  ashes,  or 
air-slaked  lime  to  absorb  the  liquid  manure.  * 

THE  FLOOR  of  the  roosting  room,  if  not  littered,  should  be  raked  or  swept 
clean  once  a  week  or  once  a  fortnight  —  the  period  between  cleanings  being 
regulated  by  the  space  per  fowl  and  by  the  proportion  of  time  the  fowls  spend 
in  the  roosting  room.  Small  bare  yards  should  be  cared  for  in  the  same  way.  f 

NESTS  in  which  straw  is  used  should  be  cleaned  out,  and  new  straw  put  in 
about  once  a  month  —  oftener  if  the  straw  becomes  damp  or  is  fouled.  In  dry 
and  sandy  situations,  bottomless  nest  boxes  may  be  used  on  an  earth  floor 
without  nesting  material.  These  nests  need  no  further  care  than  they  get 
when,  in  cleaning  up  the  floor,  they  are  set  to  one  side,  the  floor  beneath 
them  raked  smooth,  the  nest  box  replaced.  The  hens  hollow  the  earth  in  the 
nest  to  suit  themselves. 

greater  floor  space  the  litter  is  not  so  soon  broken ;  with  less  floor  space  it  would  be  very 
difficult  to  keep  a  floor  in  good  condition  without  doing  too  much  work. 

*  NOTE. —  If  the  droppings  are  saved  to  sell  to  tanneries,  absorbents  cannot  be  used  on 
the  boards.  Near  large  tanneries  there  are  generally  men  who  make  a  business  of  col- 
lecting poultry  manure.  The  price  varies  with  the  demand  and  supply,  the  average 
being  about  seventy-five  cents  per  barrel.  It  is  an  open  question  with  some  poultrymen, 
who  could  use  the  manure  on  land,  whether,  all  things  considered,  it  does  not  pay  better 
to  use  the  manure  than  to  sell  it.  When  the  hen  manure  is  to  be  sold  for  tanning,  the 
droppings  boards  cannot  be  kept  in  as  nice  condition ;  are  more  difficult  to  clean,  and 
may  be  a  menace  to  the  health  of  the  fowls.  The  droppings  board  saturated  with  urine 
is  unsanitary,  and  though  it  may  be  used  without  bad  consequences  for  a  long  time,  it  is 
unsafe,  for  unsanitary  methods  have  a  way  of  going  back  on  a  poultryman  just  as  he 
begins  to  be  sure  that  the  opposition  to  them  is  all  nonense. 

tNoTE. —  These  advices  as  to  the  frequency  of  the  periodical  cleanings  are  of  course 
suggestive ;  still  they  indicate  very  nearly  the  limits  of  time  between  cleanings  when  the 
fowls'  quarters  are  kept  reasonably  clean.  A  poultryman  who  works  systematically,  soon 
arranges  a  rotation  of  work  which  brings  the  regular  cleanings  near  enough  together  to 
keep  things  looking  respectable. 


128  POULTRY-CRAFT. 

FEED  TROUGHS  should  be  kept  clean.  No  sloppy  food  should  be  put  in 
them,  nor  should  water  ever  be  given  in  the  feed  trough.  If  only  dry  and 
crumbly  —  non-sticky  —  foods  are  given  in  the  troughs,  it  is  little  work  to  keep 
them  clean. 

DRINKING  VESSELS  should  be  rinsed  as  often  as  the  water  supply  is  renewed  ; 
and  when  rinsing  with  cold  water  fails  to  clean  effectually,  should  be  well 
scrubbed  with  scalding  water. 

Perfect  dryness  in  a  house  is  essential  to  the  right  kind  of  cleanliness.  A 
damp  house  cannot  be  kept  clean.  Dirt  that  is  harmless  when  dry  becomes 
dangerously  offensive  when  moist. 

Whitewash  sweetens  and  purifies  a  house,  besides  making  the  light  inside 
much  better  on  dark  days.  The  usual  practice  is  to  whitewash  once  a  year. 
Some  whitewash  twice,  or  even  oftener,  but  there  is  certainly  something  wrong 
with  the  house  or  the  poultryman  if  such  frequent  whitewashings  are  really 
necessary.  Dry,  well  built  houses,  kept  clean,  ought  not  to  need  whitewashing 
oftener  than  once  a  year ;  and  that  is  as  often  as  most  poultrymen  can  afford 
to  do  it.  The  most  convenient  time  to  whitewash  is  late  in  summer  or  early 
in  the  fall.  Whitewash  made  after  the  common  method:  i.  e.  —  lime  slaked 
in  boiling  water,  then  thinned  to  the  proper  consistency  for  applying,  is  gen- 
erally used,  and  is  nearly  always  applied  with  a  brush,  though  some  use  white- 
wash pumps.  The  disinfecting  and  purifying  qualities  of  the  wash  are 
improved  by  adding  a  spoonful  of  crude  carbolic  acid,  diluted  in  about  a  pint 
of  water,  to  each  pailful  of  wash.  As  an  insecticide,  whitewash  has  no  per- 
manent efficacy;  it  will  kill  what  lice  it  reaches  when  first  applied  —  that  is 
all.* 

*  NOTE. —  Those  who  wish  to  use  a  wash  that  will  not  rub  off,  will  find  the  following 
recipes  good.  They  have  been  long  in  use,  and  were  published  in  the  form  in  which  they 
are  given  here  in  the  American  Poultry  Yard: 

(i).  "Slake  in  boiling  water  one-half  bushel  of  lime,  keeping  it  just  fairly  covered 
with  water  during  the  process.  Strain  it  to  remove  the  sediment  that  will  fall  to  the 
bottom,  and  add  to  it  a  peck  of  salt  dissolved  in  warm  water;  three  pounds  of  ground  rice 
boiled  in  water  to  a  thin  paste ;  one-half  pound  powdered  Spanish  whiting,  and  a  pound 
of  clear  glue  dissolved  in  warm  water.  Mix  the  different  ingredients  thoroughly,  and  let 
the  mixture  stand  for  several  days.  When  ready  to  use,  apply  it  hot.  If  a  less  quantity 
is  desired,  use  the  same  proportions." 

(2).  "  A  good  whitewash  for  use  upon  outside  work  may  be  prepared  as  follows  : 
Slake  in  boiling  water  one-half  bushel  of  lime,  and  strain  as  before.  Add  to  this  two 
pounds  of  sulphate  of  zinc  and  one  pound  of  salt  dissolved  in  water.  If  any  color  but 
white  is  desired,  add  about  three  pounds  of  the  desired  coloring  matter,  such  as  painters 
use  in  preparing  their  paints.  Yellow  ochre  will  make  a  beautiful  cream  color,  and 
browns,  reds,  and  various  shades  of  green  are  equally  easily  obtained." 

[The  coloring  matter  used  for  whitewash  should  be  dry;  colors  mixed  in  oil  cannot  be 
used.  The  quantity  of  color  needed  would  have  to  be  ascertained  by  trial.  The  wash  in 
the  pail  will  have  a  much  deeper,  darker  shade  than  when  dry ;  so  that  to  find  out  just 
what  the  color  is  it  is  necessary  to  allow  a  little  of  it  to  dry.] 

(3).     "  Another  excellent  wash,  lasting  almost  as  well  as  ordinary  paint,  may  be  pre- 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


129 


171.  Fall  Management  of  Laying  Stock.  —  The  established  poultry- 
man's  year  begins  in  the  fall.  The  precise  date  is  not  a  matter  of  consequence. 
Many  like  to  place  it  at  October  ist.  It  is  really  governed  in  individual  cases 
by  circumstances.  It  is  not  always  possible  to  have  everything  in  readiness 
for  winter  as  early  in  the  fall  as  one  would  wish.  Every  effort  should,  how- 
ever, be  made  to  have  the  laying  stock  in  winter  quarters  —  and  not  over- 
crowded—  before  the  first  cold  rain  storms  or  sharp  cool  nights  come.  The 
time  for  these  varies  with  the  latitude,  and  sometimes  they  are  postponed 
until  quite  late ;  but  it  is  the  best  policy  to  be  prepared  for  them. 

By  early  September  pullets  intended  for  early  winter  layers  should  be  well 
grown,  and  beginning  to  show  signs  of  approaching  maturity.  Unless  there 
is  room  and  to  spare,  all  under-sized  and  poorly  developed  pullets  should  have 
been  sold.  [Late  hatched  pullets  that  will  come  to  laying  in  mid-winter,  it 
will  pay  to  keep,  if  the  stock  of  early  birds  is  short,  and  there  is  abundance  of 
room ;  otherwise,  the  sooner  they  are  sold,  after  reaching  a  marketable  age, 
the  better.  It  never  will  pay  to  over-crowd  stock  that  might  lay  early].  The 
hens  reserved  to  keep  through  a  second  winter,  should  be  about  half  through 
their  moult ;  all  others  should  have  been  disposed  of.  * 

Both  hens  and  pullets  should  be  well  fed.  Whole  corn  may  be  used  now 
at  night  quite  as  freely  as  in  the  coldest  winter  weather.  It  is  a  mistake  to 
feed  moulting  hens  short,  and  a  mistake  to  feed  them  a  too  highly  nitrogenous 
ration.  Hens  moult  better  on  a  carbonaceous  ration,  quite  a  fattening  one, 
than  on  a  narrower  one,  and  will  lay  better  afterwards.  Moulting  hens  need 
nitrogenous  matter  for  feathers ;  they  also  need  additional  heat  producing  food 
to  keep  them  warm  while  growing  new  feathers.  It  is  better  that  they  should 
be  fat  than  poor,  and  safer  to  keep  them  a  trifle  over-fat,  rather  than  barely 
in  good  condition.  If  the  weather  continues  fine,  most  good  layers  (non-sitters 
sometimes  excepted)  will,  if  well  fed  with  an  ordinary  fattening  ration,  lay 
every  third  or  fourth  day  while  moulting.  The  pullets  can  stand  high  feeding, 
because  only  the  most  advanced  are  full-feathered.  Few  are  full  grown.  In 

pared  for  outside  work  as  follows :  Slake  in  boiling  water  one-half  bushel  of  lime. 
Strain  so  as  to  remove  all  sediment.  Add  two  pounds  of  sulphate  of  zinc  and  one  pound 
of  common  salt,  and  one-half  pound  of  whiting  thoroughly  dissolved.  Mix  to  a  proper 
consistency  with  skimmed  milk,  and  apply  hot.  If  white  is  not  desired  add  enough 
coloring  matter  to  produce  the  desired  shade." 

*  NOTE. —  Right  here  comes  up  a  point  in  management  which  is  of  particular  interest 
to  farmers  and  to  others  who  keep  fair  sized  single  flocks  of  poultry.  It  is  a  common 
practice  with  such,  when  selling  poultry,  or  killing  it  for  the  table,  to  select  the  best  and 
most  salable  birds,  considering  only  the  question  of  their  immediate  use,  and  not  regard- 
ing at  all  the  effect  of  this  practice  on  the  flock.  The  result  is  that  nearly  always  the 
flock  that  is  to  furnish  winter  eggs  —  if  winter  eggs  are  obtained  —  is  made  up  of  the 
"rag,  tag  and  bob-tail "  of  several  seasons.  To  reverse  this  method  of  selection,  and 
keep  only  the  best  for  layers,  would  do  as  much  as  any  other  one  thing  to  improve  the 
general  average  of  egg  production.  This  is  one  of  the  ways  in  which  those  who  have 
little  time  to  give  their  fowls  can  secure  an  increase  of  profit  without  extra  labor. 


130  POULTRT-CRAFT. 

the  earliest  period  of  laying,  a  pullet  is  usually  making  growth  of  bone, 
muscle  and  feathers,  and  producing  eggs  at  the  same  time.  The  eggs  are  of 
necessity  small,  and  it  is  a  good  plan  to  postpone  laying  until  the  bird  is  well 
developed.  This  can  be  done  by  shifting  the  pullets  frequently  from  pen  to 
pen. 

As  the  mean  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  falls  lower  and  lower,  more  and 
more  of  the  food  consumed  goes  to  keep  up  the  heat  of  the  body.  The  mash 
should  be  a  rich  one,  heavy  in  corn  meal  and  meat  —  and  fed  warm.  Corn 
can  be  fed  quite  freely,  and  provision  made  for  a  constant  and  liberal  supply 
of  cut  bone  or  meat  scraps.  For  feeding  at  this  time  no  better  vegetable  than 
cabbage  can  be  found,  and  split  and  damaged  cabbage  can  be  had  at  this 
season  for  the  hauling,  or  for  a  merely  nominal  price.  Sound  cabbages  are 
often  very  cheap,  and  if  one  who  cannot  grow  them  himself  is  prepared  to 
buy  what  he  needs  for  the  winter  now,  cabbages  may  be  about  as  cheap  a 
green  food  as  can  be  had ;  bought  later,  they  will  probably  cost  several  times 
the  fall  price.  It  would,  of  course,  be  possible  to  keep  the  fowls  comfortable 
in  cool  weather  by  giving  less  heating  food,  and  closing  the  houses  up  more 
at  night ;  but  that  system  tends  to  keep  fowls  soft ;  while,  as  long  as  the 
weather  is  not  too  cold,  heating  food  and  a  cool  house  harden,  while  keeping 
them  comfortable. 

Now  as  long  as  the  weather  continues  fine  and  quite  uniform,  though  slowly 
growing  colder,  both  hens  and  pullets  will  do  so  well  that  the  poultryman 
will  begin  to  make  estimates  of  what  the  egg  yield  will  be  by  Thanksgiving 
Day,  at  the  present  rate  of  increase. 

Then  possibly  there  comes  a  sudden  fall  in  the  temperature  — a  fall  of  50° 
to  60°  Fahrenheit  in  a  few  hours,  is  not  unusual  at  this  season  —  and  a  change 
of  80°  may  occur  inside  of  twenty-four  hours.  The  demand  of  the  body  for  heat 
is  enormously  increased.  If  the  poultryman  can  now  keep  his  fowls  warm 
enough  so  that  there  is  no  sudden  check  to  egg  production,  all  is  well.  If  the 
cold  snap  is  of  short  duration,  everything  goes  on  as  before.  If  the  weather 
remains  permanently  cooler,  one  has  only  to  take  better  care  of  the  hens  for  a 
few  days  until  they  become  accustomed  to  the  change :  —  as  healthy  hens  do 
very  quickly ;  but  if  the  poultryman  fails  to  make  such  provision  as  is  in  his 
power  to  counteract  the  effect  of  the  change  in  the  weather ;  or,  if  the  fall  in 
temperature  is  so  great  as  to  check  laying  in  spite  of  all  that  he  can  do,  the 
effects  of  the  change  do  not  pass  away  with  the  return  to  settled  warmer 
weather,  and  if  changes  follow  each  other  rapidly,  numerous  slight  shocks 
have  sometimes  a  worse  effect  than  one  extreme  shock.  In  many  cases  the 
shock  to  the  system  of  the  hen  does  not  end  with  the  stoppage  of  egg  produc- 
tion. Consider  what  laying  is  —  what  an  egg  is.  Consider  how  any  shock  to 
an  animal  organism  acts  upon  the  reproductive  system,  and  this  effect  in  turn 
reacts  upon  the  whole  system.  Similar  instances  are  numerous  in  other  lines 
of  animal  life.  When  a  change  of  weather  causes  a  hen  to  stop  laying,  there 
will  be  no  more  eggs  laid  until  the  system  has  had  time  to  recuperate.  The 
time  needed  is  long  or  short,  as  the  shock  to  the  system  was  more  or  less 


POULTRT-CRAFT.  131 

severe,  and  varies  in  individual  cases  —  some  hens  being  much  more  suscepti- 
ble to  change  than  others,  and  some  of  those  easily  affected  recuperating 
quickly,  while  others  recover  tone  and  vigor  but  slowly. 

The  foregoing  statements  give  the  problem  of  fall  and  early  winter  egg 
production  quite  fully,  showing  how  important  is  skillful  management,  yet 
how  impotent  against  extremely  unfavorable  changeable  weather  at  this  season. 
Occasionally  it  happens  that  the  weather  is  continuously  mild,  or  uniformly 
cool,  then  cold.  In  either  case  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  get  and  keep  hens 
laying.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  chance  in  this  matter  of  fall  and  early  winter 
egg  production; — there  are  many  ifs;  yet  the  man  who  intelligently  does 
what  man  can  do  toward  getting  the  early  eggs,  has  by  far  the  best  chance. 
More  than  that,  when  good  management  misses  the  best,  it  catches  the  next 
best.  Though  it  may  fail  to  get  eggs  in  November  and  December,  it  makes 
January  eggs  practically  a  certainty ;  while  poor  management  in  the  fall  is 
apt  to  result  in  no  eggs  before  March. 

172.  Anticipating  Weather  Changes.  —  Some  Little  Things  that 
Count.  —  Poultry  keeping  is  essentially  an  occupation  made  up  of  trivialities. 
In  poultry  keeping  it  is  the  little  things  that  count.  In  working  for  early 
winter  eggs,  some  little  things  may  have  big  results,  determining  whether  it  is 
to  be  eggs,  or  no  eggs.  The  wide-awake  poultryman  is  weather-wise.  He 
anticipates  the  weather  changes.  He  sees,  or  feels  them  coming,  and  takes 
measures  against  them.  A  keen,  cutting,  chilling  wind,  springing  up  on  a 
warm  day  in  the  fall,  will  chill  the  hens  through  and  through  before  they  take 
shelter,  *  and  will,  of  course,  make  an  open  house  as  cold  as  out-doors.  Such 
cold  storms,  as  also  cold  rain  storms,  an  observant  person  can  anticipate  early 
enough  to  get  the  fowls  into  the  house,  and  close  doors  and  windows.  This  is 
a  little  trouble  at  first,  but  it  pays.  The  house  closed  up  with  the  fowls  in  it, 
is  full  of  warm  air  'which  cools  gradually.  The  fowls  hardly  feel  the  change. 
But  there  must  be  no  coddling  —  no  shutting  up  fowls  for  slight  changes,  no 
keeping  them  in  the  house  when  robust  well  fed  fowls  should  be  comfortable 
out-doors.  Once  a  severe  change  has  occurred,  and  what  could  be  done  to 
mitigate  its  effects  has  been  done  ;  things  should  proceed  in  the  regular  routine. 
On  sharp  frosty  mornings,  fowls  may  be  kept  in  until  they  have  had  a  meal, 
but  should  never  be  confined  late  when  the  cold  is  not  severe  enough  to  nip 
their  combs.  They  should  have  the  opportunity  to  go  out-doors.  Those  that 
will  not  use  it  are  good  to  kill.  They  are  the  ones  easily  affected  by  cold,  and 
most  subject  to  diseases  emanating  from  colds.  If  the  day  is  only  raw  and 
bleak,  the  open  scratching  shed,  or  the  house  with  windows  open,  gives  as 
much  shelter  as  healthy  fowls  need.  If  it  is  stormy,  without  being  very  cold, 

*  NOTE. —  Contrary  to  a  common  belief,  hens,  like  other  animals,  most  children,  and 
some  people,  have  not  the  instinct  of  doing  what  is  best  to  do  in  any  given  circumstances. 
They  learn  by  experience.  After  they  have  found  out  which  is  the  most  comfortable 
place  to  go  to  when  a  cold  storm  conies  up,  they  will  go  there  every  time.  It  is  easier 
to  teach  them  what  to  do  than  to  leave  them  to  learn  it  for  themselves  —  easier,  and  it 
comes  cheaper. 


i32  POULTJRT-CRAFT. 

it  is  best  to  leave  the  small  doors  to  the  yards  open,  letting  the  hens  run  out 
as  they  choose  —  which  will  be  in  every  lull  of  the  storm.  There  is  nothing 
more  objectionable  in  the  management  of  poultry  than  shutting  them  into  close 
houses  when  it  is  not  extremely  cold ;  it  makes  and  keeps  them  soft,  and  after 
a  time  they  become  more  susceptible  to  moderate  changes  than  rugged  fowls 
are  to  severe  changes.  There  is  a  vast  difference  between  coddling  fowls  and 
taking  such  ordinary  precautions  to  keep  them  healthy  and  comfortable  as 
sensible  persons  learn  to  take  for  their  own  personal  welfare. 

173.  Late  Culling  of  the  Laying  Stock.  —  It  is  a  good  plan,  as  inti- 
mated in  the  preceding  paragraph,  to  watch  the  flocks  closely  during  the  fall, 
and  cull  out  all  birds  easily  affected  by  inclement  weather.     These  should  be 
put  in  condition  to  market  for  poultry.     It  is  not  worth  while  to  nurse  them 
along  in  the  hope  that  they  will  eventually  become  profitable   layers.     The 
chances  are  against  that ;  their  presence  in  the  flock  is  a  standing  invitation 
to  diseases  which,  once  having  gained  a  foothold  in  a  flock,  are  apt  to  become 
epidemic.     Their  room  is  worth  more  than  the  prospect  of  profit  from  them. 

174.  Distempers   and    Colds,    Epidemic. —  Changeable   weather   and 
continuous  damp  weather  often  make  colds  epidemic  in  the  early  fall.     A 
common  cause  of  colds  and  distempers  is  closing  the  houses  too  tight  at  night. 
Fowls  that  have  been  roosting  in  open  sheds,  or  in  the  open  air,  are  almost 
sure  to  take  cold  when    moved   into    a  warm,    close   house.     When   colds 
become  thus    epidemic,  simple  remedies    should  be  used  at  once.     A  good 
condition    powder,    fed    regularly   in   the    daily   mash,    is    often    effective. 
Common    hard  soap,  dissolved  in  water  to  the  consistency  of    soft  soap,  a 
tablespoonful  to  a  gallon  of  water,  will  clear  the  nostrils  and  throat,  and  also 
act  as  a  mild  purgative.     Indeed,  this  hard  soap  remedy  alone  is  one  of  the 
very  best   that   can  be  used    in    mild   forms   of   distemper.     Colds    may  be 
partially  prevented, —  the  system  fortified  against  them, —  by  feeding  onions 
liberally ;  also  by  feeding  in  the  mash  red  peppers,  dried,  chopped  fine.     If 
these   can   be   obtained   they   are   to   be   preferred   to    ground    red    pepper 
(capsicum).     It  is  of  first  importance  to  learn  to  what  cause  the  colds  are 
due,  and,  if  possible,  to  remove  the  cause.      (Often  colds  are  due  to  prevent- 
able causes) .    Treatment  cannot  be  thoroughly  effective  while  the  cause  remains. 

175.  What  to  Do  When  it  Snows. —  No  matter  how  good  the  in-door 
accommodations  for  the  hens,  it  is  best  to  get  them  out  doors  for  at  least  a 
little  while  on  every  day  when   that   is   not   utterly  impossible.     Except  in 
extreme  northern  sections  it  is  not  very  difficult  when  snow  comes,  to  keep 
it  cleared  away  from  a  strip  six  to  eight  or  ten  feet  wide  along  the  south  side 
of  each  house.     Where  snow  does  not  lie  long  there  is  a  temptation  to  wait  f or 
the  sun  to  take  it  off.     Don't  indulge  the  temptation.     The  less  fowls  are 
necessarily  kept  confined  in  winter  the  more  urgent  it  is  that  they  shall  not  be 
shut  in  longer  than  is  needful.     They  feel  and  are  affected  more  by  restraint 
when  it  is  of  rare,  than  when  it  is  of  common  occurrence.     There  is  no  need 


POULTRY-CRAFT.  133 

of  being  over-careful  to  prevent  laying  hens  walking  on  and  eating  snow.  It 
is  often  said  that  either  of  these  things  will  stop  laying.  To  remain  long 
standing  on  snow,  or  on  wet  frozen  ground  either,  undoubtedly  has  that 
effect ;  so,  apparently,  has  eating  snow  under  some  circumstances.  Healthy 
fowls  that  have  dry  comfortable  quarters  to  which  they  go  at  will,  are  not 
injured  in  the  least  by  being  on  snow  for  a  little  while  occasionally.  Fowls 
that  can  have  water  to  drink  when  they  want  it  will  not  hurt  themselves 
eating  snow.  Indeed,  fowls  provided  with  water  do  not  voluntarily  eat  much 
snow  except  when  it  is  thawing,  wet ;  —  then  they  seem  to  prefer  it  to  water. 

1 76.  As  the  Days  Grow  Short  —  the  old  hens  are  getting  well  through 
their  moult ;  the  early  pullets  are  completely  feathered,  full  grown.  The 
food  eaten  now  goes  to  maintenance,  warmth,  and  eggs ;  and,  with  the  full 
coat  of  feathers  on,  the  heat  of  the  body  is  better  retained.  A  given  quantity 
of  fuel  food  will  go  further  in  a  given  atmospheric  temperature  now  than  it 
did  earlier ;  and  if  the  weather  is  fine  and  warm  in  November,  the  food  needs 
close  watching ;  for  it  is  very  likely  to  prove  that  the  hens  need  less  food  and 
less  heating  food  now  than  they  did  early  in  the  fall.  Now,  too,  the  days  are 
growing  so  short  that  it  begins  to  be  difficult  to  get  in  three  meals  a  day,  even 
if  the  noon  meal  is  a  light  one,  with  intervals  between  meals  long  enough  to 
keep  the  fowls  in  good  appetite.  It  would  seem  that  fowls  need  to  be  up 
and  about  for  a  while  before  they  are  ready  to  eat  a  breakfast.  If  at  all  well 
fed  at  night  they  rarely  eat  a  hearty  meal  until  some  little  time  after  sunrise. 
If  the  hens  will  not  eat  heartily  soon  after  sunrise,  the  evening  feed  should  be 
reduced,  little  by  little,  until  they  do.  A  good  way  to  feed  in  the  short  days 
is  —  when  the  mash  is  fed  in  the  morning  —  to  give  all  they  will  eat  clean  of 
a  clover  or  vegetable  mash,  and  scatter  millet,  or  other  small  grain  or  broken 
grain,  where  they  can  get  it  by  scratching  at  any  time  through  the  day ;  then 
about  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  give  a  feed  of  wheat,  oats,  barley,  cracked 
corn, —  any  one,  or  a  mixture  —  in  litter,  feeding  a  little  light ;  at  dusk  give 
whole  corn  to  hens  that  will  leave  the  roost  to  get  it.  As  to  the  quantity  of 
corn  to  be  given,  learn  to  judge  that  by  comparing  the  appearance  of  the  crop 
at  night  and  the  appetite  for  mash  next  morning.  When  the  mash  is  fed  in 
the  evening  and  vegetables  at  noon,  it  is  easier  to  regulate  three  meals  a  day. 
Whether  two  or  three  meals  are  given,  the  feeder  should  learn  to  so  regulate 
the  quantity  given  at  each  meal  that  the  hens  will  be  ready  and  waiting  for 
the  next.  If  this  is  not  done,  hens  soon  go  "off  their  feed,"  though  not 
over-fed.  The  trouble  usually  has  its  origin  in  allowing  the  fowls  to  get  too 
hungry  before  the  evening  meal,  making  them  so  greedy  that  when  given  an 
opportunity  to  eat  rapidly  and  heartily  they  swallow  more  than  they  can 
comfortably  digest.  By  being  observant  and  careful,  one  soon  acquires  a 
knack  of  feeding  about  right  for  quantity,  and  finds  it  a  much  simpler  matter 
than  the  amount  of  explanation  necessary  to  make  the  need  of  cautious  feeding 
clear  would  indicate. 


134  POULTRT-CRAFT. 

177.  Importance  of  Closely  Observing  the  Physical  Condition  of 
Hens. —  In  feeding  for  eggs  it  maybe  noticed,  that,  as  in  some  breeds  the 
tendency  is  to  convert  surplus  food  into  eggs,  and  in  some  to  convert  a  surplus 
into  fat,  and  as  similar  differing  tendencies  are  observed  in  different  hens  of 
the  same  breed,  so  the  same  hen  will  show  at  one  time  a  tendency  to  fatten, 
and  at  another  a  tendency  to  turn  all  surplus  into  eggs  —  and  this  altogether 
apart  from  the  influence  of  external  conditions.     When  one  function  gets,  as 
it  were,  the  upper  hand  of  the  others,  it  seems  to  have  power  to  appropriate  a 
lion's  share  of  the  surplus  food  taken  into  the  system.     This  matter  requires 
watching,  and  sometimes  makes  it  necessary  to  reassert  a  stock,  putting  hens 
of  similar  tendencies  together,  that  they  may  be  given  required  special  treat- 
ment.    One  of  the  secrets,  perhaps  the  secret,  of  getting  big  egg  yields  from 
fowls  of  the  large  breeds,  is  to  get  the  hens  in  such  condition,  and  laying, 
that  they  acquire  a  certain  momentum  of  egg  production — then  feed  heavily. 
For  this  one  needs  to  be  much  among  his  fowls,  watching  them  closely,  and 
handling  them  often.     The  feathers   make  it  difficult  to  accurately  judge  a 
hen's  condition  by  observation.     In  the  case  of  large  fowls  the  difficulty  is 
increased  by  the  length  and  looseness  of  the  plumage.     Very  docile  hens  can 
be  picked  up  at  any  time;    others,    not  so  easily  approached,   but  still  not 
wild,  may  be  caught  at  the  feed  trough,  by  lifting  with  the  hand  under  the 
breast,  without  being  at  all  alarmed.     A  close  examination  is  not  needed  ;  all 
that  is  necessary  is  to  get  hold  of  the  fowl  in  such  a  way  that  the  weight  rests 
easily  on  the  hand,  and  the  ringers  learn  by  touch  the  condition  of  the  flesh. 
Hens  that  would  be  too  much  disturbed  by  being  caught  by  daylight,  should 
be  handled  on  the  roosts  at  night.     Beginners  generally  need  to  watch  their 
hens'  condition  more  closely  than  old  breeders,  because  the  old  breeder's  stock 
as  a   whole   has   become  habituated  to  his  system  of  handling,  and  by  the 
inevitable  process  of  natural  selection  fowls  which  do  not  do  well  under  his 
system  have  been  largely  weeded  out. 

178.  Gentleness  in  Handling   Laying   Hens   Important. —  Careless 
and  rough  handling  of   laying  hens  cause  many  bad   breaks   in  egg  yields. 
Occasions  are    constantly    arising    in   the   poultry  yard  when    one    needs   to 
exercise  all  his  powers  of  self-restraint  to  keep  from  doing  things  of  which  he 
will  afterwards  be  ashamed.     Hens  can  be  very  aggravating,  and  cannot  be 
coerced  with  gentle  force  or  mildly  corrected  as  most  domestic  animals  are. 
A  threatening  movement,  though  carried  no  further,  will  often  put  every  hen 
in  a  pen  in  a  bad  state  of  fright ;   in  a  long  continuous  house  the  panic  runs 
like  wildfire  from  pen  to  pen.     A  disturbance  of  any  kind  measurably  affects 
the  egg  yield.     The  poultry  keeper  who  is  most  a  novice  knows  that  a  dog  or 
other  unfamiliar  animal,  or  a  bevy  of  visitors   is  very  objectionable  near  the 
quarters  of  laying  hens.     Not  all  poultry  keepers  know  that  they  themselves 
often  unknowingly  cause  bad  disturbances.     They  see  the  disturbance,  but 
are  unable  to  account  for  it.     To  abruptly  enter  a  pen,  to  run  past  it,  to  go 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT.  1 35 

into  it  wearing  clothes  different  from  those  usually  worn,  or  carrying  an 
unfamiliar  object,  will  often  send  panic  through  a  whole  flock.  Changing 
the  quarters  of  laying  hens  is  a  thing  to  be  avoided,  if  possible,  unless  it  can 
be  done  without  making  a  disturbance.  The  best  way  to  move  hens  short 
distances  is  by  driving.  If  this  is  done  carefully,  egg  production  may  not  be 
affected  at  all.  If  the  hens  must  be  carried,  they  should  be  very  carefully 
handled,  moved  only  at  night ;  not  caught  or  carried  by  the  feet.  Moving 
short  distances,  they  can  be  carried  in  the  hands,  one  at  a  time ;  or  under  the 
arms,  two  at  a  time.  When  this  mode  of  handling  is  too  tedious,  the  transfer 
should  be  made  in  coops.  With  gentle  handling  the  bad  effects  of  moving 
are  diminished.  During  the  natural  laying  season  laying  hens  are  less 
influenced  by  disturbances  than  at  other  times. 

179.  In  Coldest  Weather. —  Extreme  cold  weather  is  no  bar  to  good 
egg    production    if    the    hens    come   to    it   without   having   been    suddenly 
checked.     The  weather  condition  favorable  to  winter  laying  is  uniformity. 
It  is  often  said  that  winter  eggs  depend  on  the  poultryman's  submitting  his 
hens  to  counterfeit  spring  conditions.     This  is  but  partly  true.     Hens  that  are 
comfortably  housed  can  be  made  to  lay  well  in  almost  any  kind  of  weather  or 
climate,  provided  fluctuations  in  temperature  and  humidity  are  not  too  great 
or  too  numerous.     In  extreme  cold  weather  a  very  carbonaceous  ration  may 
be  the  best  laying  ration.     The  most  highly  carbonaceous  ration  that  a  fowl 
can  digest  will  fail  to  keep  up  the  heat  of  the  body  and  leave  sufficient  surplus 
for  a  goodly  number  of  eggs.     A  warm  house  helps,  but  in  addition,   (to 
prevent  unnecessary  expenditure  of  food)  the  hens  must  be  prevented  from 
chilling  themselves  with  icy  water  and   ice  cold  grain.     Warm  water  should 
be  given.    It  ought  not  to  be  always  warm.    The  hens  want  some  cold  water. 
The  point  is,  to  make  sure  that  they  cannot,  when  very  thirsty,  drink  freely  of 
water  so  cold  that  it  chills  them  to  the  marrow.     If  the  water  is  warm  when 
put  into  the  drinking  pans  that  is  all  that  is  necessary.     For  fowls  with  crests 
and  beards,  and  for  males  with  long  wattles,  drinking  fountains  which  prevent 
the  head  furnishings  from  getting  wet,  should  be  used.     In  cold  weather  wet 
damp  crests  are  almost  certain  to  cause  roup.     In  a  fairly  comfortable  house 
the  wattles  of  hens  and  of  short  wattled  males  are  rarely  frost  bitten ;  but  the 
long  wattles  of  Leghorn  and  Minorca  males  may  be  nipped  while  wet,  when, 
in  the  same  degree  of  cold,  they  would  not  be  injured  if  dry.     When  there  is 
danger  of  water  freezing  in  the  pans  at  night,  the  pans  should  be  emptied 
every  evening ;  otherwise  valuable  time  may  have  to  be  given  to  removing  the 
ice  from  them  in  the  morning.     It  is  of  little  use  to  warm  small  grain  that  is 
to  be  fed  in  litter ;  it  remains  warm  only  a  few  minutes,  and  the  hens  cannot 
eat  it  fast  enough  to  be  chilled  by  it,  anyway.     Grain  that  can  be  eaten 
quickly,  it  is  an  advantage  to  warm. 

180.  Ventilating  in    Cold   Weather.— When   it   is   so   cold   that  the 
poultry  house  has  to  be  closed  during  all  but  six  or  seven  of  the  twenty-four 


136  POUL  TRY-  CRAFT. 

hours,  ventilation  requires  close  attention.  Moisture  rapidly  collects  on  walls 
and  ceilings.  Damp  walls  are  good  conductors  of  heat,  and  too  quickly 
equalize  inside  and  outside  temperatures.  To  keep  the  walls  dry  there  must 
be  good  circulation  of  air  through  the  house  for  some  hours  daily.  This 
applies  to  clear  cold  as  well  as  to  wet  cold  weather.  A  house  facing  south 
is  likely  to  become  much  too  warm  through  the  middle  of  the  day  if  closed 
tight  on  a  clear  day,  no  matter  how  cold.  Whenever  the  weather  permits  — 
that  is,  whenever  a  storm  would  not  sweep  in  at  open  doors  and  windows  — 
.the  poultry  house  should  be  well  opened  up,  especially  through  the  middle  of 
the  day.  The  windows  of  a  house  fronting  south  should  be  open  as  much 
and  as  long  as  the  house  can  be  kept  comfortable  with  them  open.  They 
should  be  both  opened  and  closed  gradually ;  not  opened  wide  all  at  once 
after  the  house  has  become  over- warm,  and  closed  tight  all  at  once  when  it 
has  turned  cold  after  sundown.  A  house  with  two  rows  of  pens,  facing  east 
and  west,  and  with  large  doors  at  the  north  and  south  ends  of  the  passage, 
and  small  doors  in  the  east  and  west  sides,  is  nicely  aired  by  leaving  the  two 
large  doors  open ;  or  by  opening  all  the  small  doors,  or  one  large  door  and 
the  small  doors  on  one  side.  The  direction  and  force  of  the  wind  have  to  be 
considered. 

A  good  general  rule  for  cold  'weather  ventilation,  is  to  open  the  house  as 
much  as  can  be  done,  and  still  leave  it  at  a  comfortable  temperature  for  the 
person  doing  the  work  in  it. 

181.  In  Warm  Winter  Weather,  great  caution  needs  to  be  observed  in 
feeding.     If  corn  has  been  fed  generously  the  quantity  given  should  be  much 
reduced.     Most  cases  of  liver  disease   date  from    a  warm    spell    in  winter. 
Heavy  feeding  and   highly  carbonaceous  rations  are  continued  when,  for  the 
time,  the  hens  need  a  narrower  ration  and  much  less  food.     In  warm  winter 
weather  mashes  should  have  the  proportions  of  hay  or  vegetables  and  of  bran 
somewhat  increased ;  oats  should  be  substituted  for  a  part  of  the  corn  fed.     It 
is  the  more  needful  to  watch  this  point,  because  the  bad  effects  of  injudicious 
feeding  at   such   seasons  are  rarely  discerned,  either  in  the  condition  of  the 
fowl  or  in  the  egg  yield,  until  disease  is  in  an  advanced  stage.     Most  cases  of 
liver  disease  do  not    develop   outward   symptoms   for  some  weeks,   or    even 
months. 

182.  Care  of  Laying  Stock  in  the  Spring. —  In  the  spring  hens  need 
and  will  stand  very  heavy  feeding ;   though  it  takes   less  of  the  food  to  keep 
them  warm,  it  takes  considerably  more  for  egg  material.     If  fed  no  more 
than  they  were  in  the  winter,  most  hens  quickly  "  lay  themselves  poor."    The 
novice  is  not  apt  to  discover  this  state  of  affairs  until   his  hens  begin  to  stop 
laying,  exhausted,  and  not  likely  to  again  be  reliably  profitable  layers.     Many 
hens  which  should  have  been  good  layers  for  several  years,  are  spoiled  in  this 
way ;   and  it  is  the  best  hens  that  are  most  likely  to  suffer.    Whoever  will  keep 


POULTRT-CRAFT.  i3; 

such  hens  over  and  watch  their  later  performance,  will  find  that  hens  which 
have  once  gone  badly  out  of  condition  are  usually  uncertain  layers  afterwards. 
The  principal  cause  of  all  this  trouble  is,  that,  having  worried  over  feeding 
problems  all  winter,  the  poultry  keeper  thinks  when  spring  comes  and  the 
hens  are  laying  well,  that  he  has  the  feeding  "  down  fine,"  when,  in  fact,  the 
hens  are  laying  well  in  spite  of  poor  management.  In  the  spring  every  hen 
that  can  lay  will  lay ;  fat  hens  lay  themselves  into  good  condition ;  sick  hens 
lay  themselves  to  death.  The  fact  that  a  hen  is  laying,  is  not  by  any  means 
a  reliable  indication  that  she  is  in  perfect  health  and  condition.  A  heavy  egg 
yield  in  the  spring  is  not  particularly  desirable.  If  the  hens  have  laid  well 
through  the  winter,  they  should  be  given  a  rest  in  anticipation  of  making 
them  do  as  well  as  possible  through  the  summer,  summer  eggs  being  more 
profitable  than  spring  eggs.  If  the  egg  farmer  rears  his  own  laying  stock, 
(as  nearly  all  do),  it  will  pay  him  to  set  as  many  of  his  hens  as  go  broody  in 
March  and  April,  thus  giving  each  a  rest  of  about  a  month  (if  they  only 
hatch  the  chicks)  when  eggs  are  cheapest.  With  the  non-sitting  breeds  this 
course  is  out  of  the  question.  There  will  also  be  in  nearly  every  large  stock 
of  laying  hens  of  the  sitting  varieties  some  heavy  layers  that  will  not  go  broody 
until  quite  worn  out  with  egg  production.  * 

Such  hens  can  sometimes  be  induced  to  sit  by  shutting  them  on  a  dark  nest 
full  of  eggs.  Hens  that  persist  in  laying  heavily  should  be  given  the  very 
best  of  care,  and  every  effort  made  to  keep  them  in  tip-top  condition ;  they 
will  rest  later  while  moulting.  Too  often  it  happens  at  this  season  that  the 
poultryman's  time  and  thought  are  so  fully  occupied  with  the  care  of  the 
young  stock  and  plans  for  the  coming  year,  that  his  laying  hens  are  more  or 
less  neglected. 

183.  Summer  Management  of  Laying  Stock. —  With  the  first  hot 
days  of  summer  hens  that  have  gone  out  of  condition,  and  hens  not  bred  for 
continuous  laying,  are  apt  to  quit.  Nearly  all  the  hens  will  show  a  dispo- 
sition to  stop  laying,  but  judicious  care  and  feeding  will  keep  those  that  are 
in  condition,  and  have  the  staying  qualities,  laying  fairly  well  all  through  the 

*NoTE. —  Some  say  that,  if  fed  properly,  a  hen  is  not  exhausted  by  long  continued 
heavy  laying.  As  well  say  that  a  man,  if  fed  properly,  cannot  be  overworked.  Good 
feeding  is  a  factor  of  good  laying,  but  good  laying  is  a  drain  on  the  vigor  of  the  best 
nourished  hens ;  they  show  it  in  the  quality  of  the  eggs,  they  show  it  in  their  late  hatched 
chicks,  and,  nearly  always,  show  it  in  their  appearance.  Food,  though  of  the  best,  and 
abundant,  is  not  rest — and  cannot  be  a  substitute  for  rest.  Every  animal,  every  part  of 
an  animal,  every  animal  function,  requires  periods  of  complete  or  partial  rest.  Is  it  not 
absurd  to  suppose  that  the  most  delicate  of  all  animal  functions  can  be  kept  constantly 
working  at  high  pressure?  Is  it  not  more  than  absurd,  in  the  face  of  the  fact,  patent 
everywhere  in  nature,  that  an  overworked  reproductive  system  leads  quickly  to  decay  and 
degeneration,  to  assume  that  perpetual  motion  is  successfully  demonstrated  in  the  hen 
bred  for  eggs  and  properly  fed?  Why,  even  machines  of  wood  and  iron  need  rest,  and 
wear  out  with  less  actual  work  if  they  do  not  get  it.  Every  analogy  confirms  the  experi- 
ence of  the  mass  of  practical  poultry  men. 


138  POULTRT-CRAFT. 

heated  term ;  extra  good  laying  except  in  a  few  rare  individual  cases  is 
not  to  be  expected.  The  hens  need  to  be  kept  cool.  The  houses  should  be 
opened  wide  enough  to  be  comfortably  cool  at  night.  There  should  be  cool, 
shady  loafing  places  in  which  they  would  pass  the  hottest  hours  of  the  day. 
Their  exercise  should  be  early  in  the  morning  and  late  in  the  evening.  It  is 
a  good  plan  to  feed  grain  mornings  and  evenings,  and  the  mash  at  noon. 
Once  a  day  —  about  the  middle  of  the  afternoon  is  the  best  time, — they 
should  have  all  the  green  grass  or  vegetable  tops  they  will  eat.  On  exces- 
sively hot  days,  green  stuff  may  be  fed  to  advantage,  twice  —  just  after  the 
morning  feed,  and  just  before  the  evening  feed.  They  should  have  all  the 
cold  water  they  want,  and  may  also  be  given  all  the  milk  they  will  drink. 
Milk  is  good  at  all  times,  but  is  most  appreciated  in  warm  weather.  It  does 
not  wholly  take  the  place  of  water.  Fowls  would  not  suffer  much  from 
thirst  if  given  milk  and  no  water ;  but  they  want  water,  and  it  should  always 
be  accessible,  whether  they  have  milk  or  not.  If  one  has  plenty  of  milk,  and 
can  give  it  constantly,  the  best  way  is  to  have  two  drinking  pans  in  each 
pen,  one  for  water,  one  for  milk  —  and  let  the  fowls  drink  as  they  please. 

When  the  weather  is  extremely  warm,  the  mash  for  fowls  in  confinement 
should  contain  but  little  corn  meal,  and  no  whole  corn  should  be  given.  For 
ordinary  summer  weather,  the  mash  need  not  be  much  varied  from  that 
used  in  winter,  and  the  whole  grain  ration  need  differ  only  in  the  amount  of 
corn  fed.  If  given  the  opportunity  to  eat  vegetables  freely,  the  hens  will 
balance  the  ration  for  comfort,  not  for  eggs.  Indeed,  unless  fed  vegetables, 
as  suggested,  when  they  are  not  very  hungry,  the  hens  will  eat  a  much  larger 
proportion  of  bulky  food  than  is  consistent  with  good  laying.  * 

184.  When  Hens  Stop  Laying  Too  Early  in  Summer. — There  are 
always  some  hens,  sometimes  a  large  proportion  of  a  flock,  that  cannot 
be  kept  laying  through  the  summer  when  handled  in  the  usual  way ;  these  it 
is  not  profitable  to  keep  in  idleness.  (Too  many  poultry  keepers  do  keep 
them  along  until  fall).  They  should  be  culled  out  of  the  general  flock, 
separated  and  fed  differently ;  —  the  object  being  to  put  them  in  market  con- 
dition. They  should  be  fed  a  heavy  laying  ration,  with  little  exercise.  On 
this  treatment  many  of  them  will  begin  laying  again.  Those  which  do  not 
should  be  marketed  as  soon  as  fit,  and  those  which  lay  for  only  a  few  weeks 
should  also  go  to  market,  as  they  stop  laying  again.  Those  which  show  a 
disposition  to  keep  right  on  laying  should  be  given  exercise  to  keep  them  in 
condition.  An  egg  farmer  should  never  sell  a  laying  hen  unless  he  has  more 
eggs  than  he  needs,  or  has  another  to  take  her  place ;  as  long  as  the  hen 

*  NOTE. —  Those  whose  hens  are  kept  on  a  good  grass  range,  would  do  well  to  watch 
this  point.  If  the  hens  will  not  stop  to  eat  grain  in  the  morning,  but  go  foraging,  they 
may  be  let  alone  as  long  as  they  lay  well.  If  they  are  not  laying  as  well  as  they  ought  to 
be,  it  is  worth  while  to  try  the  experiment  of  keeping  them  in  the  yard  attached  to  the 
poultry  house  until  they  have  eaten  a  light  feed  of  grain,  which  will  often  give  them  just 
the  solid  food  they  need  to  bring  the  egg  yield  where  it  should  be. 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT.  139 

lays,  it  pays  to  keep  her.  The  first  choice  of  hens  to  be  kept  over  should  be 
from  those  which  began  laying  earliest,  and  were  kept  in  laying  condition 
with  the  least  trouble,  and  for  the  longest  time.  If  there  are  not  as  many  of 
these  as  are  needed,  some  of  the  hens  that  under  special  treatment  laid  through 
the  summer  should  be  reserved.  * 

185.  Old  Hens  as  Layers.  —  In  connection  with  the  question  of  how 
many  and  which  old  hens  to  keep  over  for  laying,  comes  up  the  moot  question, 
whether  hens  or  pullets  are  better  for  egg  production.  Some  authorities 
advise  selling  off  all  old  hens,  claiming  that  pullets  are  better  layers,  and 
therefore  more  profitable.  Others  say  they  get  as  good  results  in  number  of 
eggs  from  hens  as  from  pullets,  and  the  eggs  of  the  hens  are  more  uniformly 
of  good  size.  There  is  much  reason  to  think  that  these  diverse  results  are 
not  due  entirely  or  primarily  to  age,  but  are  according  to  treatment  and 
selection  for  long  lived  layers.  In  truth,  there  is  not  much  reason  for  think- 
ing anything  else.  The  fact  that  many  poultry  keepers  do  regularly  get  as 
good  egg  yields  from  hens  in  the  second,  third,  and  sometimes  fourth  years, 
as  in  the  first,  and  as  good  as  from  good  laying  pullets  kept  beside  them,  is 
proof  positive  that  old  hens  are  not  necessarily  poorer  layers  than  pullets,  and 
that  their  capacity  for  producing  eggs  need  not  be  impaired  by  the  work  of 
their  first  season.  It  is  a  general  truth  that  old  hens  have  a  greater  tendency 
to  fatten.  (A  poultryman  who  understands  his  business  can  easily  regulate 
that) .  In  most  cases  where  those  who  get  good  results  from  pullets  do  not 
get  good  results  from  hens,  the  trouble  seem  to  be  in  such  things  as :  breeding 
largely  from  immature  stock,  starting  pullets  to  laying  too  early,  allowing 
them  to  lay  themselves  out  of  condition,  and  not  feeding  heavily  enough 
while  moulting.  Many  poultry  keepers  are  very  careless  about  the  old  hens 
while  moulting,  though  careful  enough  at  other  times ;  and  some  are  too  care- 
ful to  feed  nothing  over  and  above  what  is  needed  to  grow  feathers.  A  better 
way  than  to  make  a  low  age  limit  when  selecting  laying  stock,  is,  to  make  it 
a  rule  to  keep  through  the  moult  all  hens  that  began  laying  early,  and  after 
laying  for  eight  or  nine  months  are  still  in  good  condition,  and  to  keep  in 
addition  to  these,  as  many  of  the  next  best  (according  to  the  same  standard  of 
value)  hens  as  are  needed  to  keep  the  plant  stocked  to  its  full  capacity  with 
productive  hens.  A  hen  which  lays  an  egg  a  week  while  moulting  pays  for 
her  food,  and  most  people  find  it  easier  to  care  for,  say,  a  hundred  moulting 
hens  than  to  rear  a  hundred  good  pullets.  A  good  layer  that  continues  in  good 
condition,  is  worth  taking  chances  on  until  she  is  three  or  four  years  old. 
Time  enough  to  dispose  of  her  when  she  is  known  to  be  unprofitable. 

*  NOTE. —  Many  amateur  poultry  keepers  whose  hens  stop  laying  in  early  summer,  sell 
them  off  for  whatever  they  will  bring.  This  is  poor  policy.  Four  times  out  of  five  the 
hens  are  in  poor  condition,  and  the  price  obtained  is  the  lowest  going.  Were  the  hens 
put  in  market  condition  before  being  offered  for  sale,  those  sold  would  bring  a  much 
better  price ;  while  those  which  resumed  laying  would  give  a  profit  in  eggs  while  being 
kept  in  condition  to  market  when  they  ceased  laying. 


1 40  PO  UL  TR  T~  CRAFT. 

186.  About  Broody  Hens. — When  hens  are  kept  principally  for  egg 
production,  frequent  and  persistent  broodiness  is  a  bad  fault,  and  should  be 
culled  and  bred  out  of  the  stock.  Broodiness  at  long  intervals  and  easily 
broken  up,  is  rather  an  advantage  than  otherwise,  for  it  gives  the  hens 
occasional  short  complete  rests  from  laying.  It  is  noticeable  that  hens 
of  the  non-sitting  varieties  lay  less  while  moulting  than  hens  of  sitting 
varieties;  the  latter  if  well  fed,  are  apt  to  lay  (a  from  20%  to  40%  yield) 
right  through  the  moult.  The  non-sitters  take  one  long  rest;  the  sitters 
several  short  rests.  If  it  is  desired  to  keep  the  hens  laying  as  steadily  as 
possible,  using  none  for  incubation,  they  can  be  most  easily  broken  of  broodi- 
ness and  most  quickly  brought  to  laying  again  by  confining  them  with  a 
reserve  male  in  a  pen  from  which  the  nests  have  been  removed.  On  a  large 
plant,  one,  two,  or  more  pens  are,  during  the  spring  and  summer,  needed  for 
hens  undergoing  the  process  of  breaking  up.  The  broody  hens  should  be 
well  fed.  To  break  up  broodiness  promptly,  and  bring  them  to  laying  with- 
out delay,  two  objects  must  be  attained,  viz.  :  the  hens  must  forget  about 
incubating ;  they  must  be  kept  in  good  condition.  Confinement  in  coops,  as 
described  in  1T57»  is,  on  the  whole,  slower  and  less  effective  than  penning 
with  other  broody  hens  and  a  male.  In  the  pens  the  hens  can  be  got  to  lay- 
ing again  in  four  or  five  days,  sometimes,  and  it  rarely  takes  longer  than  ten 
days,  unless  they  are  badly  out  of  condition.  This  method  is  not  always 
practicable  in  small  yards.  Starving  to  break  up  broodiness,  is  a  cruel  remedy 
—  not  more  effective  than  simple  removal  from  nests,  and  certain  to  postpone 
much  longer  the  resumption  of  laying. 


187.     The  Cause  of  Broodiness.— Sick  Hens  Going  Broody.  —  The 

condition  of  the  hen  is  sometimes  supposed  to  determine  the  time  of  broodi- 
ness—  even  to  cause  broodiness, — some  asserting  that  whether  hens  are 
sitters  or  non-sitters,  is  merely  a  question  of  diet.  Many  think  a  fat  hen  goes 
broody.  It  is  quite  a  common  practice  to  feed  grain  heavily  to  induce  broodi- 
ness. This  method  fails  as  often  as  it  succeeds.  There  is  nothing  in  the 
"fat  hen  theory"  of  broodiness  further  than  that,  if  a  hen  has  the  sitting 
instinct  well  developed,  she  will,  in  the  breeding  season,  go  broody  when  she 
stops  laying,  whether  she  stops  because  :  —  too  fat,  too  poor,  or  SICK.  Com- 
plaints of  sitting  hens  dying  on  their  nests  are  numerous  every  season. 
Sometimes  a  poultry  keeper  reports  his  sitting  hens  as  nearly  all  dying 
mysteriously  during  the  period  of  incubation.  Such  hens  are  mostly  sick 
when  set ;  though  broody,  their  actions  are  so  different  from  those  of  healthy 
broody  hens,  that  after  two  or  three  experiences  with  them  a  poultry  keeper 
who  is  as  observant  as  he  ought  to  be,  will  not  make  the  error  of  setting 
them  when  they  ought  to  go  to  the  hospital.  Broodiness  is  hereditary  and 
constitutional.  If  a  hen  comes  of  non-sitting  stock,  heavy  feeding  will  force 
egg  production  or  will  fatten  —  it  will  not  cause  broodiness. 


POULTRY-CRAFT.  141 

188.  About    Eggs.  —  VERY  SMALL  EGGS    are  often    laid  regularly  by 
hens  so  fat  internally  that  there  is  not  room  in  the  egg  passage  for  a  normal 
sized  egg  to  form.     The  remedies  are  :  reduced  food,  and  exercise. 

SOFT  SHELLED  AND  THIN  SHELLED  EGGS  are  due,  sometimes,  to  a  lack  of 
lime  in  the  food,  sometimes  to  the  hens  being  over-fat,  but,  perhaps,  most 
often  to  inability  to  retain  the  egg  until  fully  developed,  its  extrusion  being 
premature,  and  due  to  the  same  causes  as  the  dropping,  at  one  time,  of 
several  eggs  in  different  stages  of  development. 

WHEN  SEVERAL  EGGS  ARE  DROPPED  AT  THE  SAME  TIME,  it  is  because 
the  hen  is  temporarily  weak  and  unable  to  retain  the  weight  of  eggs  she  is 
carrying.  The  best  treatment  for  such  cases  is  to  put  the  hen  alone  in  a 
warm  roomy  coop,  where  she  can  take  a  little  gentle  exercise,  and  feed  light 
—  to  retard  egg  production, —  especially  avoiding  stimulants  which  act  on  the 
ovaries.  A  hen  in  general  good  condition  recovers  quickly  from  such  a 
mishap  (miscarriage).  With  the  regular  ration,  she  may  lay  a  perfect  egg 
the  second  day  after  dropping  three  or  four  partially  formed  ones.  It  is  better 
that  she  should  not  lay  so  soon  again.  By  postponing  laying  the  risk  of  a 
second  attack  is  diminished.  A  second  attack  is  apt  to  have  more  serious 
consequences  than  the  first.  The  hen  should  be  kept  away  from  the  male  for 
several  weeks,  as  the  attentions  and  weight  of  the  male  retard  her  complete 
recovery,  even  when  not  the  direct  cause  of  a  second  accident.  The  first 
causes  of  the  weakness  which  leads  to  the  dropping  of  several  eggs  at  once, 
are  obscure;  (they  might  not  be,  if  hens  could  talk).  The  accident  happens 
to  hens  of  all  ages,  and  in  all  conditions.  It  is  often  preceded  by  bowel 
troubles,  which  cause  extreme  weakness ;  and  there  is  little  doubt  that  in 
some  cases  it  results  from  abuse  by  the  male  or  by  other  hens.  Frights  and 
injuries  of  which  the  keeper  knows  nothing,  are  other  possible  causes. 

DOUBLE  EGGS  are  generally  attributed  to  over-fat  hens.  Clearly  a  mistake. 
Fat  hens  sometimes  lay  double  eggs ;  so  do  hens  in  good  condition,  and  hens 
in  rather  poor  condition.  A  double  egg  is  a  twin  egg.  The  tendency  to  pro- 
duce twins,  as  observed  in  human  beings  and  in  farm  stock  other  than  fowls, 
seems  to  be  hereditary.  It  is  not  known  that  twins  are  more  often  produced 
by  fat  than  by  lean  mothers. 

MISSHAPEN  EGGS. —  Some  hens  never  lay  an  egg  with  a  good  shell.  Such 
hens  should  be  killed;  their  eggs  spoil  the  appearance  of  a  lot,  and  are, 
besides,  most  apt  to  be  broken.  When  hens  which  have  been  laying  perfectly 
formed  eggs  lay  eggs  with  badly  formed  shells,  the  cause  may  be  :  for  a  single 
egg,  a  slight  accident  or  fright ;  for  a  number  of  badly  formed  eggs  laid  con- 
secutively, the  commonest  cause  is  rheumatism. 

189.  Egg  Eating. —  Its  Cause,  Prevention  and  Cure. —  A  soft  or  thin 
shelled  egg  broken  in  the  nest,  is  the  usual  cause  of  egg  eating.     From  eating 
broken  eggs  hens  soon  learn  to  break  eggs.     The  vice  is  communicated  to  all 


1 42  POULTRY-CRAFT. 

the  hens  in  a  flock  in  short  order.  Dark  nests,  as  shown  in  Figs.  13,  16,  35, 
and  36,  are  the  best  preventive  of  egg  eating.  Once  the  vice  becomes  fixed  in 
a  flock,  such  dark  nests  in  an  ordinary  well  lighted  pen  do  not  stop  it,  for 
enough  light  finds  its  way  into  the  nests  to  enable  the  hens  to  see  to  eat  the 
eggs,  if  they  are  very  eager  to  do  so.  To  effect  a  cure,  the  pen  itself  must  be 
so  dark  that  the  hens  can  just  see  to  make  their  way  to  the  nests.  Then  the 
nests  are  so  dark  that  the  hens  cannot  possibly  see  well  enough  to  break  and 
eat  the  eggs.  The  point  is  to  prevent  the  hens  breaking  eggs  until  they  have 
had  time  to  forget  about  it.  Fowls  have  short  memories.  From  one  to  two 
weeks  of  complete  prevention  usually  effects  a  lasting  cure.  Some  poultrymen 
report  having  cured  egg  eating  by  giving  the  hens  china  nest  eggs  to  pick  at 
until  they  gave  up  in  disgust.  This  may  work  sometimes ;  —  it  has  been  tried 
and  failed.  The  pitch  dark  nest  is  a  sure  cure. 

190.  Condition  and  Food,  and  the  Quality  of  Eggs. —  Hens  that  are 
fat  without  being  over-fat  lay  the  best  eggs.     Generally  the  eggs  of  corn  fed 
hens  are  richer  than  those  of  hens  fed  principally  on  other  grains. 

THIN,  WATERY  EGGS  come  from  using  too  much  sloppy  food,  or  vegetable 
food,  and  from  hens  in  poor  condition  generally,  no  matter  what  the  kind  or 
quality  of  the  food. 

PALE  YOLKS  result  from  lack  of  green  food,  and  of  fat,  oil.  It  is  rarely 
possible  to  have  anything  like  as  good  color  in  the  yolks  of  winter  eggs  as  in 
eggs  laid  in  May  and  June ;  but  by  using  hay  cured  green,  and  by  feeding 
corn  quite  freely,  much  better  color  is  obtained  than  when  root  vegetables 
only  are  fed,  and  corn  almost  excluded  from  the  ration. 

191.  Nest  Eggs. —  The  use  of  nest  eggs  for  laying  hens  is  unnecessary. 
One   may   as   well   save  the  few  dollars  —  or  few  cents  —  they  would  cost. 
Hens  in  confinement  have  no  opportunity  to  hide  their  nests.     Most  of  them 
go   to   the   nests   provided   for   them,  and   when   hens  show  partiality  for  a 
particular    nest,  the  use    of  nest   eggs    in    all  the  nests  will  rarely  prevent 
their  crowding  to  the  nest  they  favor.     Hens  which  have  opportunity  and  the 
disposition  to  hide  their  nests,  will  do  so  though  the  nests  provided  for  them 
be  filled  with  nest  eggs. 

192.  Practical  Every  Day  Use  of  an  Egg  Record. —  In  every  pen  of 
laying  hens  there  should  be  tacked  up  a  sheet,  ruled  one  way  for  the  months, 
and  the  other  for  the  days  of  the  month,  on  which  to  record  the  number  of 
eggs  laid  each  day.     A  record  of  diet  and  weather  is  valuable,  but  that  can 
be  kept  on  one  sheet  for  many  pens.     The  egg  record  sheet  in   each  pen 
furnishes  a  good  guide  in  feeding ;   is  almost  indispensable  when  one  person 
does  the  feeding  and  another  collects  the  eggs,  and  is  most  useful  always, 
for  memories  are  treacherous.     The  egg  record  shows  the  exact  nature  and 
extent  of  fluctuations  in  the  egg  yield,  and  shows  at  once  when  something  is 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


'43 


going  wrong.  In  using  the  egg  record  as  an  index  of  the  condition  of  the 
flock,  the  feeder  should  keep  in  mind  that  a  falling  off  in  the  egg  yield  for  one 
or  two  days  may  be  due  to  the  mere  coincidence  of  the  "  off  days "  of  an 
unusually  large  number  of  hens;  but,  after  a  shortage  which  cannot  be 
accounted  for  by  change  of  weather  or  a  serious  disturbance  in  the  flock,  on 
two  successive  days,  he  should  begin  to  handle  the  hens  to  exactly  ascertain 
their  conditions.  Nine  times  out  of  ten  he  will  find  that  he  has  been  feeding 
too  light. 


144  POUL  TR  r-  CRA  FT. 


CHAPTER  X. 


Principles  of  Breeding,  —  Selection  and  Care  of 
Breeding  Stock. 

193.  The    Law    of   Inheritance.  —  The   principles    of   breeding   being 
based    on    one    universal   law,    the   law   of  inheritance,   the   transmission    of 
qualities  in  generation,  a  correct  appreciation  of  this   law  is  essential  to   a 
right  understanding  of  the  principles  of  poultry  breeding.     In  its  operation 
the  law  of  inheritance  shows,  always,  two  phases  which  appear  to  result  from 
conflicting  laws.     Thus  while  fowls  of  the  same  pure  breed  produce  offspring 
unmistakably  like  themselves,  the  offspring  are  never  exactly  like  either  parent, 
or  like  each  other,  so  that  it  is  commonly  said  that  there  are  two  laws  :   (i) 
The  law  of  heredity;  of  family,   or  race,  likeness ;   and    (2)    The  law  of 
variation,  of  individual  diversity,  and  it  is  considered  that  "  heredity"  and 
"  variation  "  are  visible  effects  of  opposing  forces,  the  first  working  to  preserve 
a  race  as  it  has  existed,  the  second  to  produce  change ;  and  that  these  forces, 
especially  that  which  controls  variation,  work  in  some  mysterious  capricious 
way  which  the  breeder  cannot  fathom. 

There  are  not  two  laws.  There  is  but  one :  —  the  law  of  inheritance. 
u  Heredity  "  is  the  inheritance  of  like  qualities  ;  *'  variation  "  the  inheritance  of 
unlike  qualities,*  and  it  is  as  strictly  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  inheritance 
that  the  unlike  characteristics,  the  individual  differences,  should  pass  from 
generation  to  generation  with  changing  kaleidoscopic  effects  as  that  the  like 
qualities  should  be  transmitted  practically  unchanged. 

194.  One   Law  Explains  All   the  Phenomena  of   Reproduction. — 

Congenital,  or  inherited,  variations  may  be  divided  into  three  classes :  ( i ) 
Slight  variations,  differences  in  degree  of  like  qualities;  (2)  Considerable 
variations  —  either  extraordinary  development  or  degeneracy  of  a  race  quality, 
or,  a  new  quality  which  is  at  once  recognized  as  resulting  from  a  union  of 
ancestral  qualities;  (3)  Variations,  which  constitute  new  qualities  not 
traceable  to  known  ancestors,  or  to  supposedly  possible  combinations.  It  was 
only  necessary  to  make  such  a  classification  of  congenital  variations  to  show 

*NOTE. —  In  this  generalization  acquired  variations  must  be  excepted.  Acquired 
variations  which  are  directly  due  to  external  causes  are  the  initial  variations,  the  begin- 
nings of  differences  between  individuals,  and  are  inheritable. 


PO  UL  TR T-  CRAFT. 


'45 


that  all  variations  except  the  small  number  coming  in  class  3,  are  due  to 
inheritance  ;  for  it  is  a  matter  of  common  information  that  offspring  do  not 
inherit  equally  from  both  parents ;  that  offspring  of  the  same  parents  do  not 
inherit  alike ;  and  that  inheritance  is  not  the  transmittance  of  qualities  from 
one  generation  to  the  next  in  a  lump,  —  but  goes  back,  "  takes  back  "  through 
several  of  the  nearest  generations,  and  in  less  degree  to  more  remote  genera- 
tions. Now  if  the  law  of  inheritance  accounts  for  likenesses,  slight  differences, 
and  a  part  of  the  greater  differences,  including  some  unusual,  new,  qualities,  it 
is  to  be  expected  that  it  can  account  for  so-called  "  spontaneous  "  variations, 
which  are  simply  variations  of  which  the  causes  are  not  immediately  apparent. 
Further,  the  law  of  inheritance  requires  that  such  phenomena  of  heredity  as 
these  spontaneous  variations  shall  occur  from  time  to  time,  just  as  imperatively 
as  it  requires  that  they  shall  take  place  only  at  long  intervals.  There  is  no 
place  in  this  work  for  an  extended  demonstration  of  this  proposition.  It  can, 
perhaps,  be  made  sufficiently  clear  in  a  few  words. 

Some  observed  facts  of  heredity,  observations  of  the  number  of  generations 
required  to  establish,  "  breed  in,"  a  desirable  trait,  or  to  "  breed  out"  an 
undesirable  one,  give  the  general  rule  : — A  descendant  inherits  one-fourth  of 
the  total  of  his  qualities  from  each  parent,  one-sixteenth  from  each  grand- 
parent, one-sixty-fourth  from  each  great-grand-parent,  one-two  hundred 
and  fifty-sixth  from  each  great-great-grand  parent.  To  put  it  another 
way :  an  individual,  a  fowl,  may  inherit  an  appreciable  fraction  of  its  qualities 
from  each  and  every  one  of  thirty  ancestors,  representing  possibly  the  extremes 
of  divergence  from  the  breed  type  in  a  dozen  different  respects.  The  number 
of  inheritable  qualities  is  very  great.  The  number  of  possible  variations  due 
to  inheritance  is  enormous,  practically  infinite.  The  mathematical  rule  based 
on  a  few  facts  of  inheritance  teaches  that  slight  variations  should  be  very 
numerous,  considerable  variations  more  rare,  and  that  at  long  intervals 
remarkable  variations  due  to  a  fortuitous  combination  of  two  obsolete  qualities, 
or  of  known  and  obsolete  qualities,  should  occur.  And  since  the  law  of 
inheritance,  of  the  transmission  of  qualities,  can  explain  the  transmission  of 
unlike  as  well  as  of  like  qualities,  it  is  neither  sensible  nor  scientific  to 
attribute  a  few  phenomena  to  some  other  mysterious  cause.  The  breeders' 
maxim,  "  Like  begets  like"  is  literally  true,  and  applies  to  differences  as  well 
as  to  resemblances.  Every  principle  of  breeding  must  conform  to  the  law 
of  inheritance.  Every  phenomenon  of  reproduction  can  be  explained  in 
accordance  with  the  law,  when  all  the  the  facts  are  known. 

195.  What  the  Law  of  Inheritance  Is,  and  What  It  Means  to  the 
Poultry  Breeder. —  The  law  of  inheritance  is  a  natural  law;  it  simply 
expresses  the  relation  between  descendant  and  ancestors.  It  does  not,  and 
cannot  show  how  heredity  can  be  so  controlled  as  to  effect  the  direct  trans- 
mission of  such  particular  qualities  as  the  breeder  esteems,  and  the  immediate 
suppression  of  all  others.  As  this  is  precisely  what  the  poultry  breeder  would 
like  to  learn  how  to  do,  of  what  value  is  such  a  law  to  him  ?  Just  this  :  the 


146  PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 

demonstration  of  one  law  of  inheritance  to  account  for  all  the  phenomena  of 
likeness  and  unlikeness  in  fowls  of  the  same  blood  and  breeding  should  show 
him  that  he  can  have  virtually  complete  control  of  his  stock,  if  only  he  will 
breed  in  conformity  to  principles  proved  by  the  law  of  inheritance,  rejecting 
such  so-called  principles  as  will  not  stand  the  test.  The  right  interpretation 
of  the  facts  of  inheritance  should  show  him  that  the  uncertainty  of  results  in 
breeding,  which  he  so  often  deplores,  is  not  due  to  a  conflict  of  mysterious 
forces,  but  to  his  own  avoidable  mistakes.  The  law  of  inheritance  shows  that 
by  continued  selection  of  the  specimens  most  alike,  the  number  and  extent  of 
possible  differences  in  the  offspring  are  constantly  reduced.  There  is  nothing 
new  in  this  teaching.  Successful  breeders  have  followed  it  for  years.  But 
that  there  is  one  law,  and  only  one,  which  applies  to  all  the  phenomena  of 
reproduction,  is  the  thing  which,  more  than  all  others,  the  great  mass  of  those 
who  are  trying  to  breed  poultry  need  to  know.  When  once  they  get  firm  hold 
of  that  fact,  and  form  the  habit  of  testing  their  methods  by  it,  they  will  discard 
some  fallacies  that  now  stand  in  the  way  of  better  general  progress  in  the 
improvement  of  domestic  poultry. 

196.  Selection. —  Inheritance  perpetuates  undesirable,  as  well  as  desir- 
able, qualities.  Its  variations  are  as  apt  to  be  toward  deterioration  as  toward 
improvement.  Among  animals  in  a  state  of  nature,  natural  selection,  the 
"  survival  of  the  fittest,"  constantly  operates  to  maintain  the  old  features,  and 
preserve  and  establish  the  new  ones  most  beneficial  to  the  race.  In  the 
breeding  of  domestic  animals  natural  selection  necessarily  plays  a  part,  but 
the  chief  factor  is  artificial  selection,  the  "  separation  of  the  choicest,"  in 
accordance  with  the  interests  or  whims  of  the  breeder.  As  an  artificial 
standard  seeks  to  secure  exact  similarity  in  many  details,  or,  very  superior 
excellence  in  one  or  more  qualities,  it  is  only  by  the  most  rigid  selection  of 
the  individuals  allowed  to  propagate  their  kind  that  a  high  stage  of  improve- 
ment can  be  reached  and  maintained.  Rigid,  severe  selection  is  the  key  to 
success  in  poultry  breeding.  If  a  breeder  desires  uniformity  in  his  stock,  the 
breeding  birds  must  be  as  nearly  alike  as  can  be  had,  and  bred  from  like  birds 
for  many  generations.  If  he  wishes  to  secure  high  excellence  in  a  particular 
quality,  he  must  breed  consecutively  from  the  individuals  in  which  that  quality 
is  best  developed  —  without  detriment  to  other  qualities.* 

*  NOTE. —  While  a  breeder  should  always  select  the  best,  he  must  expect  that  if  a  best 
bird  is  so  much  better  than  the  type  in  any  particular  that  it  is  markedly  unlike  the  type, 
its  progeny  will  not  (unless  it  happens  to  be  strongly  prepotent  with  regard  to  the  feature 
which  constitutes  its  excellence)  show  an  equal  excellence.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  in 
accordance  with  the  law  that  only  a  small  proportion  should  do  so,  and  that  an  equal 
number  should  be  as  much  worse  than  the  poorest  progeny  of  the  mediocre  stock  as  the 
best  are  better  than  their  best.  So  that,  on  the  whole,  the  immediate  progeny  of 
phenomenally  good  birds  may  be  disappointing.  But  by  breeding  from  the  best  again 
and  again,  the  marked  advance  made  in  any  feature  by  an  individual  can  be  established 
as  a  race  feature, —  provided  always  that  it  can  exist  without  detriment  to  other  qualities. 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT.  147 

Good  food  and  good  care  are  not  less  important  than  good  stock,  but  come 
later  in  order  of  time ;  and  to  justify  their  use  one  must  give  them  to  good 
stock.  Food  and  care,  though  of  the  best,  cannot  make  a  good  layer  of  a  hen 
that  is  constitutionally  a  poor  layer ;  or  put  a  round  full  breast  on  the 
descendant  of  a  line  of  flat  breasted  fowls ;  or  clean  color  on  the  offspring  of 
a  race  weak  in  color.  It  is  in  the  failure  to  carefully  select  the  specimens  used 
in  the  breeding  pens  that  most  breeders, —  not  merely  most  breeders  of  Stand- 
ard fowls,  but  most  breeders,  most  people  who  hatch  and  rear  fowls,  —  fail 
to  make  their  work  pay. 

197.  The   Common    Mistake. —  One   who  keeps  a  dozen  hens   in  his 
back  yard  and  rears  annually  sixty  to  seventy  chicks,  selects  a  good  male  bird, 
perhaps  paying  a  good  price  for  him,  then  hatches  from  the  eggs  of  the  entire 
flock.     His  hens  are  a  fair  average  of  their  kind,  not  uniform  either  in  appear- 
ance or  quality,  some  fairly  good,  some  poor.     That  is  about  as  such  flocks 
run.     According  to  the  common  theory,  as  the  best  hens  lay  the  most  eggs, 
and  throw  the  strongest  chicks,  the  greater  proportion  of  the  chicks  reared 
will  be  from  those  best  hens.     That  theory  takes  for  granted  several  things 
that  may  not  be  so.     The  result  desired  is  not  impossible;  it  is  improbable, 
if  the  eggs  are  hatched,  as  they  usually  are  in  such  cases,  by  hens.     See  how 
it  works.     One  point  of  improvement  is  to  be   prolificacy.     The   best  and 
earliest  layers  are  not  always  the  first  to  go  broody,  but  they  are  very  likely  to 
be.     They  are  set  on  eggs  from  the  flock.     If  any  of  their  own  eggs  happen 
to  be  in  the  lot,  such  eggs  are  the  poorest  they  had  laid.     These  hens  incubate 
for  three  weeks,  remain  with  the  broods  for  six  or  eight  weeks  more.     So  it 
happens  that  nearly  all  the  chicks  reared  are  from  the  poorer  hens.     Is  it  any 
wonder  that  results  in  grading  up  scrub  stock  and  improving  stock  of  poor 
quality  are  not  always  satisfactory?     Selection  implies  separation.     Separa- 
tion is  the  object  of  selection.     If  two  or  three  or  more  of  the  best  of  a  dozen 
hens  are  separated  from  the  flock,  the  poultry  keeper  can   know  that  he  is 
breeding  from  those  hens,  and  no  others. 

1 98.  The  Farmer's  Mistake.  —  It  is  a  very  usual  practice  for  a  farmer 
having  a  flock  of,  say,  one  hundred  hens,  when  buying  blood  to  improve  his 
stock,  to  buy  six  or  eight  males  of  the  dollar-and-a-half  to  two-dollar  kind  to 
run  with  the  flock ;   then  use  for  hatching  eggs  collected  from  the  flock.     The 
chances  are  against  any  considerable  number  of  the  few  hundreds  of  chicks 
reared  being  from  the  best  hens.     If  twelve  or  fifteen  of  the  best  had  been 
separated  from  the  general  flock  for  the  breeding  season,  and  mated  with  a 
male  worth  two  of  the  kind  used,  the  eggs  from  these  hens  only  could  have 
been  set,  and  more  improvement  made  in  the  stock  in  one  year  than  by  follow- 
ing the  hit  and  miss  method  for  three. 

199.  The  Breeder's  Mistake. —  Many  breeders  of  pure  bred  stock,  who 
breed  from  a  single  pen,  will  use  in  that  pen  anything  they  may  happen  to 


148  POULTRT-CRAFT. 

have  in  the  way  of  a  hen,  that  is  not  so  poor  that  for  very  shame  they  cannot 
use  her,  trusting  to  a  good  male  to  stamp  his  quality  on  all  the  offspring. 
Thus  they  lumber  their  premises  with  a  lot  of  cull  chicks,  which  over-crowd 
the  better  ones,  and  prevent  the  few  good  ones  from  developing  into  what 
they  might  become  if  given  more  room  and  better  care.  Others,  who  breed 
from  several  pens,  instead  of  mating  best  males  to  best  females,  make  com- 
promise matings  *  in  order  to  get  more  and  larger  breeding  yards ;  sacrificing 
quality  to  quantity  at  every  point.  This  is  not  good  breeding,  neither  is  it 
good  business  policy.  Good  breeders  breed  only  from  the  best  of  their  good 
birds. 

200.  One  Law  for  Fancier  and  Farmer.  —  The  wisdom  of  close  cull- 
ing in  breeding  fancy  stock  is  generally  admitted,  but    many  amateurs    still 
insist  that  for  them  such  close  culling  is  impracticable.    Most  practical  breeders, 
also,  do  not  cull  as  closely  as  they  should.     One  who  has  not  much  room  will 
say  that  it  is  not  worth  while  to  take  such  pains  for  a  few  chicks.     He  ought, 
rather,  to  think  it  most  important  that  none  of  his  limited  space  be  wasted  on 
poor  chicks.     If  he  has  room  to  rear  chicks,  he  certainly  has  room  to  separate 
as  many  of  his  best  hens  as  are  needed  to  lay  the  eggs  from  which  to  hatch  the 
chicks.     One  who  must  rear  a  large  number  of  chicks  will  say  that  if  he  culls 
as  closely  as  he  knows  he  ought  to,  he  will  not  have  hens  enough  to  lay  the 
eggs  he  needs  for  hatching.     That  by  no  means  follows.     What  is  more  likely 
to  happen  is,  that  with  better  average  breeding  stock,  less  crowded  and  better 
cared  for,  he  will  rear  more  and  better  chicks,  though  not  as  many  eggs  are 
set. 

201.  The    Points    to    be   Considered    in   Selecting,   are:    Pedigree, 
Appearance,  Performance,    Condition. 

202.  Pedigree. —  Good  fowls  from  poor  stock  are  worth  little  as  breeders. 
Good  fowls  of  unknown  ancestry  are  to  be  used  with  extreme  caution.     Good 
fowls  of  known  good  ancestry  are  valuable  in  the  breeding  yard  in  proportion 
as  their  ancestry  was  continuously  uniformly  good,  when  measured  by  the 
standard  by  which  the  progeny  are  to  be  measured.     The  mere  fact  that  a 
fowl  is  "pedigreed,"  the  names,  or  band  numbers  of  its  ancestors  known,  is 
worth  nothing  at  all  in  breeding.     The  important  thing  to  know  is,  how  like 
they  were  to  the  desired  type,  and  in  what  they  differed. 

203.  Appearance  includes  Shape,  Size  and   Weight,  and    Color. —  Typ- 
ical shapes  of  pure  bred  fowls  are  shown  in  the  illustrations  in  Chapter  V.     In 
selecting  for  breeding,  the  breed  type  should  be  followed  closely ;   departures 
from   it  should  be  made  only  for  the  purpose  of  strengthening  a  feature  in 

*  NOTE. —  Every  mating  is  to  some  extent  a  compromise,  a  balancing  of  merits  and 
defects.  The  reference  here,  however,  is  to  the  practice  of  using  birds  that  for  the  good 
of  the  breed  should  go  to  the  pot,  in  extreme  matings  which  produce  many  birds  that 
look  all  right,  but  are  of  little  value  as  breeders. 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT.  149 

which  specimens  of  the  breed  are  generally  weak.  As  a  rule,  deformities  are 
to  be  avoided.  It  will  occasionally  happen  that  a  deformed  fowl  is  of  such 
uncommon  general  or  special  excellence  that  the  breeder  will  profit  more  by 
using  it,  breeding  its  excellence  into  and  its  defects  out  of  his  stock,  than  by 
rejecting  it.  These  cases  are  rare,  and  before  using  a  disqualified  bird  a 
novice  should  make  sure  that  it  really  has  the  excellence  he  supposes  it  to 
have.  In  any  case,  it  should  be  used  in  a  special  mating,  and  not  allowed  to 
communicate  its  defects  to  the  general  stock.  A  male  and  female  having  a 
deformity  in  common  should  not  be  mated  together ;  nor  should  fowls  having 
the  same  defect,  not  amounting  to  a  deformity,  be  mated  together.  Shape  is 
universally  recognized  as  more  important  than  color,  yet  in  judging  and  in 
breeding,  shape  is  too  often  sacrificed  to  color.  The  trouble  is  that  color 
defects  are,  to  most  people,  more  conspicuous  than  shape  defects.  Many 
cannot  distinguish  between  the  different  types  of  form ;  but  nearly  everyone 
can  appreciate  a  color  fault  when  once  attention  has  been  called  to  it.  Besides 
this,  there  is  a  mercenary  side  to  the  question.  When  rigid  selection  is  made 
for  both  shape  and  color,  the  breeder  finds  only  one  good  bird  where,  if  shape 
defects  are  overlooked  he  would  have  two  or  three. 

Fowls  lacking  in  size  and  weight  should  be  rejected  as  breeders ;  or,  at 
most,  used  with  great  caution.  Lack  of  size  is  a  common  fault  in  all  breeds. 
Of  the  thoroughbred  fowls  for  which  the  Standard  has  weight  requirements, 
the  greater  number  produced  never  attain  Standard  weight  when  in  breeding 
condition.  Some  breeders  advocate  breeding  from  "  medium  sized  "  *  males 
and  large  females,  claiming  that  the  female  gives  size  and  shape,  the  male 
color ;  or  that  the  female  gives  size  and  practical  qualities,  the  male  shape  and 
color. t  Unless  the  size  of  the  large  females  is  objectionable,  to  make  such 
matings  a  system  is  bad  business.  It  will  take  only  a  few  experiments  in 
crossing  males  of  small  breeds  on  females  of  large  breeds  to  convince  anyone 
that  the  greater  part  of  the  progeny  will  come  intermediate  in  size,  a  few 
being  as  small  as  the  sire,  a  few  as  large  as  the  dam.  The  prevalence  of  the 
intermediate  size  may  not  at  first  be  noticeable  in  the  offspring  of  small  males 
and  large  females  of  the  same  breed,  but  a  second  medium  sized  male  mated 
to  large  pullets  from  the  first  will  get  so  few  large  chicks  of  either  sex  that 
the  breeder  will  begin  to  know  where  he  is  "  at." 

*  NOTE. —  With  some  few  medium-sized  means,  of  Standard  weight  or  a  little  more; 
but  more  often  the  "medium  sized"  males  are  below  Standard  weight,  and  very  much 
smaller  than  the  best  developed  males  of  their  kind ;  — and  in  speaking  of  best  developed 
males,  excessively  large,  coarse  specimens  are  barred. 

t  NOTE. —  In  the  face  of  facts  accessible  to  anyone  who  opens  his  eyes  to  see  them, 
such  broad  generalizations  are  absurd.  The  most  frequently  recurring  case  of  the  com- 
monest form  (offspring  resembling  one  parent  more  than  the  other)  of  direct  heredity,  is 
that  daughters  resemble  the  sire,  sons  the  dam.  This  is  known  as  "cross  heredity.' 
Though  the  most  common  case,  it  is  not  by  any  means  a  rule,  for  cases  where  sons  most 
closely  resemble  the  sire,  daughters  the  dam,  and  cases  where  offspring  of  both  sexes 
inherit  quite  equally  from  sire  and  dam,  are  numerous. 


1 50  PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 

Excessively  large  males  should  be  discarded.  They  are  rarely  good  in 
shape,  and  not  infrequently  the  excessive  growth  of  bone  and  muscle  is 
correlative  with  defective  generative  organs.  In  all  breeds  having  Standard 
weight,  best  results,  as  far  as  results  depend  on  size,  are  obtained  by  using 
birds  whose  weight,  in  good  breeding  condition  equals  or  slightly  exceeds  the 
requirements  of  the  Standard.  In  the  smaller  breeds  most  satisfactory  results 
are  obtained  by  using  the  largest  birds  having  typical  shape. 

In  selecting  breeding  fowls  of  cross  bred,  grade,  or  mongrel  stock,  selection 
for  uniformity  in  shape,  size,  and  color  is  advisable,  the  type  used  in  each 
quality  being  that  most  desirable  for  the  breeder's  immediate  purpose.  In 
breeding  thoroughbred  fowls  uniformity  of  color  is  imperative.  Color 
matings  for  Standard  fowls  are  described  in  ^[215  —  226. 

204.  Performance. —  Under  this  head  prolificacy  is  considered   from  a 
little  different  point  of  view  than  in  treating  of  egg  production.     A  hen  may 
be  a  great  layer  and  a  poor  breeder.     The  points  most  valued  in  a  breeder  are  : 
(i)   Ability  to  produce  numerously  vigorous  offspring  of  the  general  type; 
and  (2)   Prepotency,  breeding  power,  ability  to  stamp  individual  qualities  on 
offspring.     The  combination  of  marked  prepotency  and  great  excellence  is 
rare.     It  would,  perhaps,  be  discovered  oftener  if  more  accurate  records  of 
matings  and  results  were  kept.     The    distinction    between   prepotency    and 
prolificacy  should  be  observed.     In  breeding  high  class  stock  a  very  prepotent 
fowl  may  be  valuable  as  a  breeder,  though  not  specially  prolific  ;  but  generally 
birds  low  in  prolificacy  cannot  be  profitably  used. 

205.  Condition. —  Fowls  selected  for  breeding  should  have  strong  con- 
stitutions, should  be  in   perfect   health  when   put   in   the  breeding   pen,   and 
should    never   have   been    seriously  sick    or   badly  out  of  condition.     Fowls 
which  as  chicks  were  puny  or  backward,  though  finally  nursed    into   good 
condition,  are   not  desirable  breeders ;    nor   are    those  which    though    never 
seriously  sick,  have  been  marked  as   subject  to   slight  disorders.      Condition 
of  the  breeders  is  of  greatest  importance.     Hundreds  of  thousands  of  chicks 
are  hatched,  weak  in  constitution,  predisposed  to  certain  disorders,  destined 
to  die  prematurely  in  spite  of  all  that  can  be  done  for  them. 

206.  Selecting    Breeders    to   Produce    Laying    Stock. —  The  male 
should    be   from    good    laying    stock :     the   females    selected    for    individual 
performance  in  egg  production,  and  when  possible,  according  to  the  laying 
qualities  of  their  daughters.     One  who  is   much  among  his  fowls,  observing 
them  closely,  can  form  a  pretty  good  idea  of  the  relative  laying  capacities  of 
the  hens.     If  the  hens  cannot  be  watched  quite  closely,  trap  nests  should  be 
used.     In  selecting  young  hens  for  breeders,  pedigree  counts  most,  for  the 
performance  observed  can  only  be  for  a  few  weeks  or  months  prior  to  the 
time  of  mating.     In  selecting  hens,  judgment  can  take  account  of  a  year's 


POULTRT-CRAFT.  151 

work,  a  season's  breeding,  and  a  short  period  of  the  laying  of  pullets  from 
them.  For  this  reason,  if  for  no  other,  hens  are  more  desirable  breeders  than 
pullets.  Shape  and  size  of  eggs  laid  by  each  hen  must  be  considered,  and 
sometimes  color  of  eggs  also.  The  laying-breeding  hen  should  be  well  built, 
symmetrical.  Defective  shape  may  be  tolerated  in  an  individual,  but  ought 
not  to  be  perpetuated. 

In  breeding  from  extraordinary  layers,  particular  attention  should  be  given 
to  condition.  To  the  statement  in  If  196,  that  a  breeder  should  select  those 
specimens  in  which  desired  qualities  were  best  developed,  the  proviso, 
"  without  detriment  to  other  qualities,"  was  added  because  artificial  standards 
sometimes  require  things  which  are  incompatible;  but  more  particularly 
because  in  breeding  practical  poultry  the  development  of  laying  or  table 
qualities  is  easily  brought  to  the  point  where  further  development  is  at  the 
expense  of  other  qualities,  and  thus  detrimental  to  the  stock.  Chicks  from1 
eggs  laid  in  the  first  two  months  of  a  mature  hen's  laying,  are,  on  the  whole, 
better  than  those  from  eggs  produced  when  the  hen  has  been  laying  continu- 
ously for  three  or  four  months.  The  best  layers  should  be  tried  as  breeders 
if  they  are  in  good  condition  at  the  season.  There  are  some  big  layers  that 
are  uncommonly  good  breeders ;  but  in  general,  a  hen  that  lays  a  hundred 
and  fifty  eggs  a  year  is  worth  more  as  a  breeder  than  one  which  lays  several 
dozen  more. 

207.  Selecting  Breeders  to  Produce  Market  Poultry. —  In  selecting 
stock  for  this  purpose  shape  is  most  important.     Figs.  47*54  show  good  types 
for  broilers   and   small   roasters.     Figs,  56-62,  73,  74,  show  good  types  for 
general  market  fowls.     In  selecting  from  common  stock  preference,  should  be 
given   to    specimens    approaching   one   of  the  good  meat  types.     Stock  for 
breeding  broilers  should  be  quick  maturing,  early  laying,  and  generally  good 
laying    stock.     Quick    growth    is  an  important  point  in  broiler  production. 
Only  hens  that  lay  early  and   well  can  be  depended  on  to  produce  market 
poultry,    roasters    as    well    as  broilers,  for  the  earliest  demand.     The  early 
roaster  is,  as  a  rule,  just  a   broiler  grown  older.     For  large  roasters,  slow 
maturing  stock  is  best,  as  the  meat  of  the  young   males  remains  soft   much 
longer.     A  point  of  much  importance  is  how  the  fowl  fattens.     Fowls  which 
are  prone  to  put  on  internal  fat  do  not  make  good  breeders. 

208.  Age  of  Breeding  Stock. —  Fowls   should   be    at   their   best  their 
second  season,  at  the  beginning  of  which  they  are  generally  twenty  to  twenty- 
four  months  old.     If  they  are  not  then  in  tip-top  condition,  more  "fit"  for 
breeding  than   in-  the  previous  year,  the  breeder  should  look  for  something 
wrong  in  his  method  of  handling  breeding  stock.     A  hen  coming  two  years 
old,  if  not  forced  as  a  pullet,  and  if  properly  handled  between  seasons,  will 
lay  as  well  the  second  year  as  the  first,  and  lay  larger  eggs,  which  will  hatch 
stronger  and  better  chicks.     A  cock  of  the  same  age  that  has  not  been  over- 


152  POULTRY-CRAFT. 

worked  as  a  cockerel,  and  neglected  between  seasons,  that  is,  as  he  should  be, 
in  his  prime,  will  get  better  chicks  than  it  was  possible  for  him  to  get  as  a 
cockerel.  The  mating  of  males  and  females  of  this  age  will,  other  things 
equal,  give  better  results  than  any  other  age  or  combination  of  ages.  Well 
grown  young  fowls  make  better  breeders  than  two-year-olds  not  in  prime 
condition.  A  method  favored  by  many  breeders  is  to  mate  a  cock  bird  to 
pullets,  and  a  cockerel  to  hens.  Generally  these  matings  give  better  results 
than  matings  of  cockerels  and  pullets  not  as  good  as  matings  of  two-year-olds. 
Fowls  in  their  third  season  will  often  get  as  good  chicks  at  the  height  of  the 
breeding  season  as  they  did  the  previous  year.  Old  fowls,  however,  are  not 
reliable  breeders  early  in  the  season. 

209.  How    Many   Hens   to   a   Male?  — The    general    rule    is:  — for 
Asiatics,  6  to  10;  for  Americans,  8  to  12  ;  for  Mediterraneans,  10  to    15.     A 
great    deal    depends    on    the    male,    and    whether    his    attentions    are    well 
distributed.     Sometimes  good  results  in   fertility  are  obtained  from  a  male 
with  twenty,  twenty-five  or  thirty  hens ;  but  the  quality  of  the  chicks  from 
such  matings  is  rarely  what  it  should  be.     Even  in  using  the  smaller  numbers 
suggested  in  the  rule,  it  is  better    to    keep    low  rather   than    high.      Small 
matings  of  one,  two,  or  several  hens  with  a  male,  are    sometimes    desired. 
Some  males  worry  the  hens  when  confined  with  so  small  a  number.     In  that 
case  the  usual  method  is  to  introduce  hens,  as   many  as  needed  to  keep  the 
male  peaceable,  of  a  breed  which  lays  eggs  easily  distinguished  from  those  of 
the  breeding  hens.     When  more  hens  are  kept  together  than  one  male   can 
take  care  of,  various  expedients  are  resorted  to  to  prevent  males  interfering 
with  each  other,  or  exhausting  their  power.     When  two  males  are  used,  the 
commonest  practice  is  to  run  them  with  the  hens  on  alternate  days,  though 
some  make  the  periods  several  days  or  a  week ;   and  some   think   they  get 
better   results   by  using   one    male   as    long  as  he  keeps  in    condition,   then 
substituting  one  held  in  reserve  for  that  purpose.     A  favorite  method  with 
larger  flocks  is  to  use  three  males,  giving  each  two  days  work  and  a  day's  rest 
alternately.     It  is,  perhaps,  needless  to  say  that  these  methods  are  not  used 
by  good  breeders  for  good  stock.     For  market  poultry  and  laying  stock,  they 
answer ;  but  unless  the  hens  are  all  good  of  their  kind,  it  is  better  to  reduce 
their  number  to  as  many  as  can  be  kept  with  one  male.     Sometimes  a  male 
is    given    too    many  or   too   few    hens,  for  the    purpose    of    influencing   the 
transmission  of  the  qualities  of  sire  and  dam,  it  being  known  that  the  parent 
in  best  condition  is  most  prepotent.     This  practice  is  a  questionable  one,  for 
it  really  amounts  to  deliberately  putting  one  side  or  the  other  out  of  condition. 

210.  Can  Sex  be  Controlled?  —  No  one  has  yet  succeeded  in  demon- 
strating that  it  can  —  not  in  fowls.     The  numerous  recipes  given  do  not  prove 
at  all  reliable. 

211.  Contamination. —  It  is  sometimes  asserted  that  a  hen  once  served 


POULTRY-CRAFT.  153 

by  a  male  of  another  variety  cannot  be  depended  on  to  breed  true.  It  is  only 
in  rare  instances  that  eggs  laid  ten  days  after  contamination  hatch  chicks 
which  show  in  any  way  the  influence  of  the  foreign  male.  Few,  perhaps 
none,  of  the  reported  cases  of  the  influence  of  a  male  of  another  breed 
persisting  for  months  or  years,  rest  on  indisputable  evidence.  The  same 
thing  may  be  said  of  alleged  cases  of  "  mental  impressions." 

212.  Introducing  New  Blood. — Inbreeding. — It  is  commonly  believed 
by  poultrymen  that  to  maintain  the  vigor  of  a  stock  new  blood  must  be 
frequently  introduced.  Many  go  so  far  as  to  say  that  any  inbreeding  at  all  is 
bad ;  that  it  is  from  the  outset  the  beginning  of  deterioration.  If  a  man 
inbreeds,  and  his  stock  is  weak,  the  weakness  is  invariably  attributed  to 
inbreeding.  Most  of  the  evils  assigned  to  inbreeding  are  not  due  to 
inbreeding,  but  to  careless  selection.  There  is  no  evidence  that  the  breeding 
of  males  and  females  of  the  nearest  kin  necessarily  initiates  degeneracy. 
There  is  abundant  evidence  that  with  proper  selection  for  stamina,  and  to 
avoid  common  defects,  very  close  inbreeding  can  be  followed  for  a  long  time 
without  injuring  the  stock.  There  is  also  abundant  evidence  that  breeding 
unrelated  fowls  without  careful  attention  to  vigor,  and  avoidance  of  common 
defects,  is  at  once  attended  with  precisely  the  same  results  as  breeding  fowls 
of  near  kin  under  the  same  conditions.  The  prejudice  (for  it  is  nothing  else) 
against  inbreeding,  is  one  of  the  serious  drawbacks  to  general  improvement 
of  poultry.  A  breeder  who  does  not  confine  his  matings  within  narrow  blood 
lines  slips  back  about  as  fast  as  he  crawls  forward.  Nearly  every  new 
breeder  wastes  a  number  of  years  trying  to  breed  good  stock  without 
inbreeding.  Practical  poultrymen  will  notably  improve  their  stock  by 
inbreeding,  then  throw  away  results  by  bringing  in  new  blood  because  of  the 
fear  that  they  may  carry  inbreeding  too  far.  In  time  nearly  all  breeders  come 
to  admit  that  inbreeding  is  absolutely  necessary  (in  breeding  fancy  fowls)  in 
color  breeding,  yet  few  can  be  found  who  do  not  think  it  unquestionably  bad 
for  the  practical  breeder.  As  has  already  been  said,  there  is  not  one  law  of 
breeding  for  one  class  of  breeders  and  another  for  another  class.  If 
inbreeding  is  necessary  to  fix  superiority  in  color,  it  is  necessary  to  fix  it  in 
shape ;  if  it  is  necessary  to  fix  it  in  shape,  it  is  necessary  to  fix  superior  laying 
capacity  or  rapid  growth,  or  vigor.  Inbreeding  is  necessary  hecause  there 
cannot  be  intelligent  breeding  without  inbreeding.  One  who  does  not  breed 
within  close  lines  cannot  know  his  stock  as  far  back  as  he  must  know  it  if  it 
is  to  be  mated  with  reasonable  assurance  that  the  matings  will  produce  the 
desired  results.  To  secure  uniformity  inbreeding  is  necessary,  because  the 
number  of  inheritable  differences  must  be  kept  as  low  as  possible,  and  this 
can  only  be  done  by  close  inbreeding.  The  vigor  of  a  flock  is  sustained  not 
by  regularly  introducing  new  blood,  but  by  selecting  breeding  birds  for  vigor. 
Vigorous  birds  generally  beget  vigorous  offspring ;  weak  birds  weak  offspring, 
whether  akin  or  not. 


154  POULTRT-CRAFT. 

Let  it  be  fully  understood  that  to  breed  from  birds  because  they  are  related, 
without  making  selection  for  points  desired,  is  as  wrong  as  to  refuse  to  mate 
related  birds.  The  whole  matter  is  well  put,  in  a  nutshell,  by  a  writer  on 
cattle  breeding  when  he  advises  to  ignore  the  fact  of  relationship  altogether, 
and  breed  from  the  best  individuals  obtainable.  Then  the  question  for  the 
poultry  breeder  is  whether  he  can  get,  or  can  afford  to  get,  better  birds  than 
he  has.  By  breeding  only  from  vigorous  selected  stock,  and  observing  the 
rule  not  to  mate  fowls  having  bad  defects  in  common,  mating  together  only 
fowls  which  in  individual  merit  and  in  pedigree  —  whether  akin  or  no  kin  — 
are  what  they  should  be  for  the  purpose  of  the  mating,  a  breeder  may  be  sure 
that  he  is  avoiding  the  mistakes  of  those  who  miss  it  when  they  inbreed,  and 
also  of  those  who  miss  it  when  they  do  not. 

213.  Cross  Breeding. —  To  breed  crosses  regularly,  is  not  good  policy 
for  any  poultry  keeper.     //  is  not  a  rule  that  crosses  are  hardier  or  better 
layers  than  fowls  of  pure  blood.     Some  crosses  give  good  results,  others  do 
not.     As  to  comparing  all  crosses  with  all  pure  bred  fowls :  the  breeder  of 
crosses  generally,  very  soon  leaves  them  for  thoroughbreds.     In  crossing,  the 
breeds  selected  should  have  such  unlike  qualities  as  when  combined  to  form 
an  intermediate  type,  would  give  the  result  sought.     The  cross  of  two  breeds 
having  a  bad  fault  in  common,  should  never  be  made.     Crossing  to  give  stock 
vigor,  is  not  better  than  using  vigorous  blood  of  the  same  variety ;  it  is  not  as 
good.     Crossing  two  weak  stocks  in  the  hope  of  producing  a  strong  one,  will 
give  satisfactory  results  in  very  very  few  instances.     Some  good  crosses  are 
White,  Brown,  or  Buff,  Leghorn  and  Light  Brahma,  or  Buff,  or  White,  Cochin  ; 
Brown  Leghorn  and  Partridge  Cochin ;  White  Plymouth  Rock,  or  Wyandotte 
and    Light  Brahma ;  Golden,  or  Buff,  Wyandotte  and  Buff  Cochin ;  Indian 
Game  and  Light  Brahma,  or  Buff,  or  Partridge,  Cochin,  or  Plymouth  Rock, 
or  Wyandotte  :  all  these  give  yellow  skin  and  legs.     Good  crosses,  not  right 
in    color    for  "yellow"    poultry,    are    Indian    Game   and   Langshan ;   Black 
Minorca,  or  Houdan,  and  Langshan  ;  Houdan  and  Brahma.     In  crossing  birds 
differing  much  in  size,  males  of  the  small  breeds  and  females  of  the  large 
should  be  used.     In  color,  cross  bred  pullets  most  often  resemble  the  sire, 
cockerels  the  dam ;  though  the  likeness  is  not  very  complete,  and  often  quite 
different  colors  result.     In  shape  and  size,  the  progeny  of  both  sexes  is  mostly 
intermediate.     Occasionally  the  cross  offspring  are  larger  than  either  parent. 

214.  Mating  Standard  Fowls. —  With  a  copy  of  the  Standard  and  an 
illustration  of  his  variety  before  him,  a  novice  who  has  studied  the  remarks 
on  selecting   for  shape   (^[203),  will   not  need  to  have  the  points  of  shape 
desired  explicitly  set  forth  in  the  directions  for  mating  each  variety.     The 
matings  as  described  in  the  following  paragraphs  are  mostly  color  matings ; 
but  a  few  points  on  shape  which  need  special  mention  are  introduced,  and  in 


POULTRT-CRAFT.  155 

a  few  cases  representing  quite  different  types  of  fowls,  fuller  suggestions 
about  shape  are  given.  The  particulars  of  shape  to  which  attention  is  called 
are  those  requiring  most  attention.  The  beginner  usually  needs  to  be  advised 
where  to  look  for  the  weak  points  in  his  stock ;  for  some  of  the  most  trouble- 
some are  overlooked  unless  attention  is  especially  directed  to  them.  Above 
all  else,  a  novice  needs  to  guard  against  being  carried  away  by  admiration 
for  uncommon  excellence  in  any  one  particular.  It  is  the  all  around  good 
birds  that  make  the  best  breeders.  In  most  of  the  varieties  good  Standard 
birds  of  both  sexes  are  produced  from  a  mating  of  Standard  birds ;  but,  in  a 
few,  distinctly  different  matings  are  required  to  produce  first  class  specimens 
of  each  sex.  In  many  varieties  for  which  a  single,  Standard  mating  is  used, 
it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  use  birds  rather  strong  in  color  to  restore  color 
lost  in  breeding  continuously  from  Standard  birds. 

It  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  often  the  Standard  allows  considerable  lati- 
tude in  the  matter  of  color,  and  in  such  cases  it  may  happen  that  a  breeder 
who  follows  the  Standard  as  he  interprets  it,  will  fail  to  produce  stock  that 
comes  well  up  to  the  Standard  as  interpreted  by  other  breeders  and  the  judges. 
Thus,  in  breeding  Light  Brahmas,  one  might  breed  pullets  with  wing  flights 
(primaries)  nearly  half  white,  but  when  he  comes  to  show  or  sell  his  birds, 
he  would  find  that  such  wings  are  considered  faulty,  nearly  black  primaries 
being  preferred.  And,  in  breeding  buff  varieties,  one  might  get  what  he 
considered  the  correct  shade,  only  to  find  quite  a  different  color  in  vogue. 
The  only  way  a  breeder  can  learn  what  the  public  wants,  is  by  keeping  in 
touch  with  other  breeders  of  his  variety,  visiting  accessible  shows,  and  exam- 
ining all  reputed  good  specimens  he  has  opportunity  to  handle.  In  mating 
birds  of  varieties  for  which  both  double  and  single  matings  are  used,  the 
system  by  which  the  stock  was  produced  should  be  followed. 

215.  Mating  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks. — A.  C.  Hawkins'  rules 
(adapted  from  the  American  Plymouth  Rock  Club  Catalogue). 

"To  produce  both  sexes  of  Standard  color  from  the  same  mating,  has  been  the  study 
of  thousands  of  breeders  for  the  last  thirty  years.  That  some  fine  specimens  have  been 
produced  by  the  single  mating  system,  is  true;  but,  unquestionably,  more  than  ninety 
per  cent  of  the  winning  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks  in  the  country  for  the  last  twenty  years, 
have  been  the  product  of  the  special  mating  system ;  and  it  is  no  doubt  the  surest  and 
safest  method  of  producing  the  highest  scoring  specimens  of  the  breed. 

"  To  PRODUCE  STANDARD  FEMALES,  use  in  the  breeding  pen  only  females  of  the 
highest  type  of  color  and  form,  with  the  qualities  desired  in  the  female  progeny ;  or  in 
other  words,  the  very  highest  scoring  specimens  that  have  no  (bad)  defects.  To  these 
females  mate  a  male  bird  of  medium  light  color,  and  evenly  barred  all  over,  including 
wings  and  tail ;  and  whose  dam  and  sire's  dam  were  of  the  same  high  standard  in  form 
and  color  desired  in  the  female  progeny. 

"  The  male  should  have  the  blood  in  his  veins  of  the  same  general  character  as  that  in 
the  females  he  is  mated  with.  He  should  have  a  deep  full  breast,  broad  concave  back, 
small  well  serrated  comb,  orange  yellow  legs, —  all  important  and  desirable  qualities  in 
his  produce. 


156  POULTRT-CRAFT. 

"  Such  a  mating  can  be  depended  on  to  produce  ninety-five  per  cent  of  first  class 
breeding  and  exhibition  females.  The  males  from  it  will  be  of  the  same  color  as  their 
sire  —  not  exhibition  birds,  but  useful  for  breeding  choice  females. 

"Do  not  use  males  with  very  light  necks  and  tails  in  these  pullet  breeding  pens,  as 
these  defects  will  be  reproduced  in  the  progeny  in  pullets  with  splashy  light  necks,  and 
blurred  poorly  barred  tails. 

"Pullets  of  even  color,  and  distinctly  barred  all  over,  are  what  is  desired;  and  with 
careful  selection  of  the  breeding  stock,  it  is  not  difficult  to  get  them.  Such  pullets  are 
rarely,  if  ever,  produced  from  Standard  colored  males  —  and,  if  they  look  well,  are  not 
reliable  breeders. 

"To  PRODUCE  MEDIUM  DARK  BLUE  BARRED  MALES  AS  REQUIRED  BY  THE  STANDARD  : 
—  put  at  the  head  of  the  breeding  pen  the  very  finest  exhibition  male  of  Standard  color, 
even  serrated  comb,  broad  concave  back,  deep  full  breast,  small  spreading  tail,  orange 
yellow  legs,  evenly  barred  all  over  and  to  the  skin.  Do  not  use  a  male  with  any  serious 
defect,  even  if  he  scores  high. 

"  With  this  male  mate  females  of  the  same  line  of  breeding  as  himself;  not  necessarily 
akin  to  him,  but  females  whose  sire  and  dam's  sire  were  high  scoring  Standard  colored 
birds.  These  females  should  be  medium  dark  in  color,  not  smutty ;  but  evenly  barred  all 
over  and  to  the  skin,  with  good  combs,  forms  and  legs.  From  such  a  mating  ninety-five 
per  cent  finely  colored  males  suitable  for  breeding  and  exhibition  can  be  produced.  The 
females  will  be  of  the  same  general  character  and  color  as  their  dams,  too  dark  for 
exhibition,  but  useful  for  breeding  choice  males. 

"  By  this  special  mating  system,  and  by  careful  selection  of  the  breeding  stock,  the 
Barred  Plymouth  Rock  is  sure  to  improve  each  season,  and  the  longer  they  are  bred  in 
line  the  more  perfectly  will  their  Standard  qualities  be  brought  out." 

216.  Mating  Brown  Leghorns. — A.  C.  Smith's  rules  (specially 
contributed  for  this  book) . 

The  methods  and  means  that  must  be  employed  to  mate  Brown  Leghorns  successfully 
for  exhibition  specimens  of  both  sexes,  vary  with  the  style  of  bird  the  breeder  desires  to 
produce.  Most  breeders  use  what  is  known  as  the  double  mating  system  —  that  is,  a 
separate  mating  for  the  production  of  each  sex.  Some  breeders  use  the  single  mating 
system,  depending  upon  one  mating  to  produce  exhibition  males  and  females.  But  the 
growing  tendency  in  this,  as  in  almost  all  varieties  of  fancy  fowl,  is  toward  the  double 
system.  The  single  mating  may  be  used  in  this  variety  with  far  more  success  than  in 
most  others. 

While  it  can  hardly  be  said  that  each  system  has  its  advantages,  it  can  be  said  that 
each  system  has  its  place.  The  best  system  is  certainly  the  one  that  will  produce  the 
greater  per  cent  of  exhibition  birds.  Which  system  will  do  that,  depends  upon  the  style 
of  male  and  female  described  in  the  Standard  extant.  The  present  demand  is  for  what 
may,  in  general,  be  described  as  a  dark  male  and  light  female.  Such  birds  are,  from  a 
breeder's  standpoint,  direct  opposites.  Far  better  results  may  be  obtained  in  seeking 
these  diametrically  opposite  types  by  making  a  distinct  mating  for  each  sex. 

The  Double  Mating  System. 

Mating  for  Exhibition  Males. —  [THE  MALE].  The  mating  for  exhibition  males 
should,  first  of  all,  contain  as  fine  an  exhibition  specimen  as  can  be  reared,  bought,  or 
borrowed  —  and  I  am  inclined  to  say,  stolen.  The  most  important  feature  of  this  bird 
(if  one  feature  is  more  important  than  others)  are,  undercolor,  which  should  be  dark  and 
deep ;  a  good  metallic  stripe  in  hackle  and  saddle ;  a  concave  shaped  back,  giving  the 
graceful  touch  to  every  part  of  the  bird;  an  even  plumage,  i.  e.,  showing  the  same  shade 
of  red  in  all  sections  that  call  for  that  color ;  and  sufficient  station  to  infuse  the  bird  with 


POULTRT-CRAFT.  157 

style  and  life.  These  are  qualities  that  a  flock  takes  generally  from  the  male.  The  other 
sections  should,  of  course,  be  as  near  Standard  requirements  as  possible ;  but  the  writer 
believes  that  more  improvement  can  be  made  in  comb,  eyes,  wattles,  lobes,  color  of  legs, 
and  many  minor  points  with  the  female,  than  in  color  of  plumage,  length  of  leg,  and 
general  appearance. 

[THE  FEMALE]. — The  females  selected  for  this  mating  should  be  dark  in  color  of 
back  and  wing,  with  dark  undercolor  throughout.  The  color  of  the  neck  should  be  as 
near  red  as  possible,  and  the  stripe  as  near  a  metallic  black  as  can  be  had  with  the  other 
requisites.  The  comb  should  be  small,  and  very  evenly  serrated.  If  it  stands  erect  it  is 
rather  an  advantage  than  otherwise.  Such  females  are  prone  to  have  pale  or  black  legs. 
In  this  case  they  should  not  be  used  if  others  with  the  same  general  characteristics  can 
be  procured ;  and  while  a  pale  leg  may  be  tolerated,  a  black,  or  dark  colored  leg  should 
never  be  used.  Should  either  male  or  female  fail  in  this  respect,  the  breeder  should  see 
that  it  is  strongly  offset  in  the  opposite  sex. 

Mating  for  Exhibition  Females. — [THE  MALE]. — The  mating  for  exhibition  females 
should  first  of  all  possess  a  male  bird  that  is  the  son  of  a  splendid  female,  and  was  sired 
by  the  son  of  a  splendid  female.  The  further  this  line  can  be  followed  back  the  more 
certain  the  breeder  may  feel  of  a  large  percentage  of  exhibition  females  in  the  flock 
reared  from  this  mating.  This  male  should  have  a  five  pointed  comb,  smooth  and  straight 
over  the  beak ;  a  light  orange  hackle,  with  a  fairly  good  black  stripe.  His  saddle  should 
be  the  same  shade  of  color  as  the  hackle ;  but  the  black  stripe  is  not  wanted  in  the  saddle 
of  a  pullet  breeding  male.  The  wing  bow  should  be  about  the  same  shade  of  orange  as 
the  back,  and  should  be  large,  running  well  down  into  the  wing  bars. 

[THE  FEMALE]. —  The  females  should  be  the  best  exhibition  specimens  procurable. 
Far  better  to  breed  from  a  single  pair  or  trio  than  to  use  inferior  females  in  this  mating. 
The  female  of  the  present  Standard  is  a  rather  light  colored  specimen  as  Brown  Leghorn 
females  run.  She  should  have  a  nicely  lopped  comb,  standing  straight  in  front,  and 
gradually  drooping  to  one  side,  and  a  small,  smooth,  white  or  creamy  white  lobe. 

The  style  of  female  just  described,  and  the  male,  which  is  very  clearly  described  in 
the  Standard,  can  be  bred  successfully  only  by  the  double  mating  system. 

The  Single  Mating  System. 

The  single  mating  system  might,  by  chance,  produce  fairly  good  specimens  of  the 
types ;  but  even  so,  the  blood  must  be  properly  balanced,  and  who  is  to  foretell  that  such 
is  the  case?  The  single  mating  is  one  in  which  the  best  exhibition  male  and  the  best 
exhibition  females  are  mated  together  to  produce  exhibition  birds  of  both  sexes.  Its 
merit  is  not  known  under  the  present  Standard.  Its  fault  is  that  it  seldom  produces  a 
bird  of  either  sex  of  exhibition  merit.  It  has  for  a  recommendation  only  the  beauty  of 
its  simplicity.  It  will  become  of  use  only  when  males  and  females  of  a  medium  shade  of 
color  are  in  vogue. 

The  Intermediate  Mating. 

A  plan  of  mating  that  advocates  of  a  single  mating  very  often  use,  and,  no  doubt, 
think  is  a  single  mating, —  though  it  is  not,  but  may  be  called  an  intermediate  mating  — 
will  succeed  very  well,  but  not  as  well  as  the  double  and  separate  matings.  This  plan 
involves  the  selection  of  a  male  mid-way  between  the  types  described  for  breeding 
exhibition  males  and  for  breeding  exhibition  females.  That  is,  select  a  medium  colored 
male,  and  mate  him  to  females  of  both  types. 

These  are  the  methods  employed,  given  in  a  general  way.  The  details  must  be 
observed  and  studied  by  the  individual  breeder. 


158  PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 

217.  Mating  Silver  and  Golden  Wyandottes. —  These  varieties  being 
alike  except  in  ground  color  of  plumage,  the  rule  for  mating  to  get   correct 
markings  is  the  same  for  both.      The  breeder  of  Golden  Wyandottes  has  an 
added  difficulty  in  the  task  of  getting  the  desired  shade  of  golden  bay  in  the 
ground  color.     The  methods  of  mating  to  establish  a  good  ground  color  are 
similar  to  those  used  to  produce  a  uniform  buff.      (See  ^f  226).     To  produce 
the  finest  Standard  specimens  of  both  sexes  a  mating  of  exhibition  males  and 
females  is  the  best  that  can  be  made.     The  rule  as  given  specially  for  Silvers, 
by  A.  C.  Hawkins,  in  Farm-Poultry,  is : — 

"  Mate  a  male  of  good  size,  fine  in  form  ;  medium  short  legs,  giving  a  blocky  appearance  ; 
medium  sized  comb,  even  and  well  pebbled  on  top,  and  curving  with  the  head ;  breast 
medium  dark,  with  no  edging  on  the  feathers ;  a  strongly  striped  hackle  and  saddle ; 
white  wing  bow,  clearly  defined  double  bar  on  wing,  flights  free  from  extra  white ;  with 
females  of  full  or  over  weight,  good  combs,  clear  open  laced  centers  on  breast  and  back ; 
well  striped  hackles,  white  wing  tips,  tails  not  too  high  ;  both  males  and  females  with  good 
legs." 

The  females  with  large  open  centers  all  over,  favored  by  some  judges  and 
breeders,  are  not  Standard  birds.  (The  Standard  requires  medium,  not  large 
centers  in  back).  Still,  the  method  of  producing  them  is  of  interest  to 
Wyandotte  breeders,  for  if  large  open  centers  all  over  are  demanded,  notwith- 
standing the  Standard,  breeders  must  produce  them,  and  if  the  fad  persists, 
the  Standard  will  eventually  be  changed  to  conform  to  it.  It  should  be  noted 
that  the  rules  given  below  do  not  properly  constitute  a  system  like  the  double 
mating  systems  used  for  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks  and  Brown  Leghorns. 

Ira  C.  Kellar's  rules  (condensed  and  arranged  from  a  series  of  articles  on 
Golden  Wyandottes,  in  Reliable  Poultry  Journal)  : 

(i).  To  Produce  Large  Centers  on  Cushion. —  In  breeding  for  large  centers  of  cushion, 
depth  of  breast  lacing  in  the  female  is  lost.  To  produce  these  large  centers,  mate  females 
that  have  them  with  a  male  that  has  a  strong  well  laced  breast,  with  not  too  large  centers, 
with  neck,  beak,  back,  saddle,  and  wing  coverts  well  laced.  Such  a  mating  should  pro- 
duce a  fair  per  cent  of  pullets  with  good  sized  centers  all  over,  and  nice  very  open  laced 
cockerels. 

(2).  To  Produce  Strongly  Laced  Males, —  mate  cockerels  from  above  mating  with 
fairly  heavily  laced  females. 

(3).  If  Females  are  so  Open  as  to  Grow  Weak  in  Breast, —  mate  with  a  Standard  male. 
Some  of  the  pullets  from  such  a  mating  will  be  well  laced  all  over,  with  quite  heavy 
lacing.  These  mated  to  a  male  well  laced  in  every  section  will  produce  some  pullets  up 
to  Standard,  and  a  good  per  cent  of  Standard  marked  cockerels. 

(4).  To  Produce  Pullets  with  Clear  Open  Large  Centers  all  over,  a  fair  Per  Cent  of 
which  will  Moult  into  Clear  Centered  Hens, —  breed  year  after  year  from  males  well 
laced  all  over.  Clear  centered  hens  cannot  be  obtained  by  breeding  Wyandottes  heavily 
laced. 

218.  Mating  Light    Brahmas. —  The    mating   of    Standard   exhibition 
birds,  as  bred  by  the  best  breeders,  is  the  best  that  can  be  made,  and  will 
produce  a  very  small  per  cent  of  inferior  specimens  of  either  sex.     In  shape 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT.  1 59 

the  Cochin  type  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Langshan  type  on  the  other,  are  to 
be  avoided.  The  comb  should  be  well  developed,  but  firm,  well  set,  the 
three  divisions  and  the  serrations  well  defined.  Particular  attention  should 
be  given  to  the  combs  of  females.  These  are  so  small  that  inconspicuous 
irregularities  in  them  are  often  overlooked.  These  same  inconspicuous 
irregularities,  wrinkles  and  poorly  marked  divisions  and  serrations,  are  very 
unsightly  when  they  reappear  much  magnified  in  the  male  offspring.  The 
head  should  be  broad  and  strong,  with  projecting,  beetle  brows.  The  neck 
neither  so  long  as  to  give  the  bird  a  gawky  look,  nor  so  short  as  to  make  it 
look  dumpy ;  the  breast  broad,  full,  well  rounded  ;  the  back  broad,  narrower 
across  the  saddle  than  at  the  shoulders,  but  not  conspicuously  so,  flat  across 
the  shoulders,  medium  in  length ;  deep  bodies,  well  spread  tails ;  legs  to 
correspond  with  neck  in  length,  set  well  apart ;  shanks  well  feathered  on  the 
outside,  and  outer  and  middle  toes  well  feathered. 

The  common  color  fault  is  weakness  in  black  points,  too  little  black,  and 
that  not  of  good  quality.  The  black  should  be  clear  and  bright,  with 
metallic  sheen ;  the  hackle  striped  exactly  as  described  in  the  Standard ;  the 
primaries  black  in  the  male,  nearly  black  in  the  female.  [The  Standard 
allows  a  nearly  black  wing  in  males,  and  a  wing  just  more  than  half  black 
in  females, —  but  to  produce  first  class  specimens  of  the  type  popular,  black 
wings  in  males  and  in  females  nearly  black  must  be  used].  The  main  tail 
feathers  and  inner  row  of  coverts  should  be  free  from  white,  the  outer  coverts 
edged  with  white.  Black  may  be  conspicuous  in  the  foot  feathering,  but  is 
discredited  in  the  back.  The  under  color  should  be  an  even  bluish  white. 
Old  fowls  that  lose  little  black  in  moulting  are  especially  valuable  as  breeders. 

219.  Mating    Dark    Brahmas. — A   double    mating  system,  in  which 
both  matings  are  u  Standard"  matings,  is  used.     The   Standard  calls  for  a 
breast,  "black  or  black  slightly  frosted  with  white,"  in  males.     Males  with 
black  breasts  are  used  with  Standard  females  for  the  cockerel  mating,  and 
males  with  frosted  breasts  with  Standard  pullets  for  the  pullet  mating. 

220.  Mating  Partridge  Cochins.  —  Both  systems  of  mating  are  used  ; 
the  single  mating  of  Standard  birds ;   the  special  cockerel  mating  Standard 
males  to   females  as  dark  as  the  Standard  allows ;    the  pullet   mating  light 
colored  males  with  brown  or  red  in  breast  to  light  colored  Standard  females. 
The  remarks   on    Light   Brahma   shape    apply   generally   to    Cochins.     The 
Cochin  has  not  the  broad  skull  and  overhanging  brows ;  but  aside  from  that, 
the  differences  in  form  are  chiefly  due  to  differences  in  length  and  density  of 
plumage. 

221.  Mating  Colored  Indian  Games.  —  Double  matings  are  used  :  for 
cockerels,  Standard  males  with  dark  females,  not  well  penciled ;  for  pullets, 
laced  males  (the  Standard  male  is  not  laced)  with  Standard  females. 


160  POULTRY-CRAFT. 

222.  Mating  Houdans.  —  Houdans  lose  black  very  rapidly  in  eachsuc- 
ceeding  moult,  and  in  mating  the  age  of  the  specimen  has  to  be  considered. 
Young  birds  of  either  sex  in  which  the  black  does  not  largely  predominate, 
should    not   be  used.     Good  matings  are:    (i)    A  cock  a   little  darker  than 
Standard,  with  Standard  hens.     (2)    Cock  as  above,  with  pullets  a  little  too 
dark   for   exhibition.        (3)     Cockerel   nearly  black,   with    Standard   pullets. 
(4)    Cockerel  as   in   (3),   with  light  colored  hens.     Special  attention  should 
be  given  to  the  crest  of  the  male.     It  is  never  as  good  as  in  the  best  females, 
but  unless  it  is  fairly  developed  and  good  in  form,   the  greater  part  of  the 
offspring  are  likely  to  have  very  poor  crests. 

223.  Mating  Spangled  and  Penciled  Hamburgs  and  Polish.  —  For 

all  these  varieties,  single  matings  of  Standard  birds  are  used.  Experts  in 
these  varieties  advise  that  a  mating  which  gives  good  results  be  kept  unchanged 
as  long  as  the  birds  comprising  it  can  be  used  for  breeders. 

224.  Mating  White  Varieties. — In  those  white  varieties   for   which 
the  Standard  requires  pure  white  plumage  and  bright  yellow  legs  and  skin, 
the  best  mating  is  of  fowls  with  shanks  and  skin  a  good  yellow,  and  just  the 
faintest  creamy  tint  in  the  plumage,  a  little  stronger  on  the  backs  of  the  males 
than  elsewhere,  and  generally  a  little  stronger  next  the  skin  than  on  the  surface, 
but  not  anywhere  approaching  a  straw  color.     The  backs  of  young  males 
should  be  quite  white.     As  a  rule  a  cock  will  show  more  color  than  he  did  as 
a  cockerel.     Those  which  at  two  years  old  show  little  color  are  most  desirable 
breeders.     In  breeding  the  white  varieties  which  do  not  have  yellow  skin  and 
legs,  the  pure  white  plumage  is  less  difficult  to  get. 

225.  Mating  Black  Varieties. —  The  correct  black  is  a  brilliant  black 
with  greenish  luster ;  the  faulty  black  has  a  dead  rusty  look  or  a  purplish  cast. 
The  commonest  color  defect  in  black  fowls  is  white,  or  gray,  in  the  flights, — 
often  only  a  mere  tip  of  grayish  white.     Breeders  have  found  it  difficult  to 
breed  this  entirely  out,  and  the  usual  practice  is  to  tolerate  it  in  all  round  good 
specimens,  at  the  same  time  avoiding  mating  together  males  and  females  having 
the  fault  in  common.     In  black  fowls  with  yellow  skin  and  legs  : —  Cochins, 
Wyandottes,  Leghorns, —  clean  yellow  shanks  are  rarely  produced.     In  Black 
Langshans  yellow  in  the  feet  generally  indicates  the  presence  of  Cochin  blood. 
Breeding  from  birds  having  the  fault  not  only  retains  the  objectionable  color, 
but  makes  it  harder  to  maintain  the  true  Langshan  shape. 

226.  Mating  Buff  Varieties. —  The  buff  varieties,  with  the  exception 
of  Cochins,    are   all    new,    and   the   up-to-date  Cochin  might  without  great 
impropriety  be  styled  a  new  variety.     Though  buff  is  called  a  "  solid  "  color, 
it  is  by  no  means  an  easy  color  to  handle.     Breeders  find  it  quite  as  difficult 
to  get  one  uniform  shade  of  buff  in  all  sections  and  keep  it,  as  to  get  any 
combination  of  colors  and  markings  described  in  the   Standard.     At  present 


POULTRT-CRAFT.  161 

the  popular  shade  is  a  golden  buff,  between  the  reddish  buff  and  the  pale  yellow, 
which  were  the  extremes  of  color  which  different  breeders  have  been  calling 
buff.  In  mating  buff  fowls,  the  best  method  is  to  use  birds  of  both  sexes  as 
near  the  desired  golden  buff  as  can  be  obtained,  avoiding  the  mating  of  birds 
having  color  defects  in  the  same  section,  whether  the  defects  are  similar  or 
opposite.  The  common  color  faults  in  buff  fowls  are  white,  or  black,  in 
wings  and  tails ;  red  on  the  backs  and  shoulders  of  males ;  very  light  breasts 
on  females  ;  black  ticks  or  lacing  on  necks  and  backs  ;  mottled  plumage,  slaty 
under  color,  white  under  color  —  no  under  color.  Black  or  gray  in  any  part 
of  the  plumage  except  the  primaries  and  main  tail  feathers,  should  cause  a 
bird  to  be  rejected,  no  matter  how  good  otherwise.  In  the  sections  excepted, 
a  little  dark  color  may  be  admitted  if  the  mate  of  the  bird  is  good  buff  in  them. 
In  any  case  it  is  not  advisable  to  breed  from  a  specimen  in  which  the  foreign 
color  is  distinct.  Birds  with  positive  white  in  wings  and  tails  should  be 
rejected ;  also  those  in  which  the  upper  and  lower  webs  of  the  feathers  are  of 
distinctly  different  shades.  Faded,  and  slightly  mealy  wings  and  tails,  may 
be  admitted  if  the  bird  is  pretty  good  all  round,  and  can  be  mated  with  one 
good  in  wing  and  tail.  A  bird  extra  good  in  wing  and  tail  can  generally  be 
used  to  advantage,  though  rather  weak  in  other  sections.  In  breeding  to  get 
the  red  out  of  the  backs  of  males,  the  lightest  females  that  can  be  found  that 
are  a  good  bright  even  surface  color,  the  same  on  back  and  breast,  should  be 
mated  to  males  as  free  from  red  as  they  can  be  had,  and  fairly  uniform  in  all 
sections.  Specimens  with  pale  eyes  should  be  rejected.  In  an  exhibition 
bird  surface  color  is  worth  more  than  under  color ;  but  in  breeding,  a  bird  good 
in  under  color  will  get  more  good  even  colored  chicks  than  one  better  on  the 
surface  and  not  so  good  in  under  color. 

227.  The  Breeding  Season  is  early  or  late,  long  or  short,  according  to 
the  purpose  and  progress  of  the  breeder.  For  breeding  early  market  poultry 
stock  should  be  mated  late  in  the  fall.  In  producing  laying  stock  the  chicks 
of  different  breeds  should  be  hatched  at  such  times  that  the  pullets  will  come 
to  laying  maturity  tolerably  early  in  the  fall,  yet  not  so  early  that  after  laying 
a  few  eggs  they  moult  like  old  hens.  Brahma  and  Cochin  pullets  begin  to  lay 
at  seven  to  nine  months ;  Langshans,  six  to  eight  months ;  American  breeds, 
five  to  seven  months ;  Leghorns  and  the  smaller  breeds  generally,  four  to  six 
months.  Very  precocious  stock  may  lay  earlier,  very  backward  pullets  later, 
than  the  periods  specified.  If  it  is  desired  to  have  pullets  coming  to  laying 
maturity  from  September  first  to  November  first,  hatches  should  be :  —  for 
Brahmas  and  Cochins,  February  and  March  ;  for  Langshans,  March  and  April ; 
for  Plymouth  Rocks,  March  fifteenth  to  May  fifteenth ;  for  Wyandottes,  April 
first  to  June  first ;  for  smaller  varieties,  May  first  to  July  first.  The  breeding 
pens  should  be  mated  up  at  least  five  or  six  weeks  previous  to  the  earliest  date 
given  for  hatching  each  class  of  fowls.  When  breeding  fowls  are  shipped 
from  a  distance,  it  is  best  to  buy  so  early  that  the  birds  have  several  months  in 
which  to  become  acclimated  before  the  beginning  of  the  breeding  season. 


162  POULTRT-CRAFT. 

Large  breeders  of  exhibition  and  stock  birds  try  to  have  stock  ready  to  sell  for 
exhibition  at  any  and  all  times,  from  the  earliest  fair  to  the  latest  poultry 
show.  A  few  hatch  practically  the  year  round.  It  is  always  better  to  be  a 
little  in  advance  of  the  season,  than  to  run  the  chance  of  a  set-back  which  will 
put  operations  so  far  behind  that  the  loss  cannot  be  recovered  that  season. 

228.  Care  of  Breeding  Stock.  —  Many  breeders  try  to  discourage  their 
breeding  hens  from  laying  in  the  winter ;  not  merely  that  they  may  lay  more 
eggs  when  eggs  for  hatching  are  wanted,  but  because  they  wish  to  have  them 
in  tip-top  physical  condition  during  the  breeding  season.  They  are  not  always 
entirely  successful  in  this,  but  by  keeping  them  a  little  fat,  generally  keep  egg 
production  below  the  point  where  it  begins  to  tell  on  vitality.  Those  who  use 
the  same  hens  for  laying  and  breeding  should,  if  the  hens  lay  early  in  the 
winter,  give  them  a  few  weeks  rest  just  before  the  breeding  season.  (If  only 
the  best  hens  are  used  for  breeding,  this  need  not  cause  a  break  in  the  total 
yield  of  eggs.  Sometimes  the  rest  will  come  about  naturally;  the  hens  after 
some  weeks  or  months  of  laying  going  broody.  They  may  then  be  allowed 
to  hatch  a  brood  of  chicks  (to  be  reared  by  another  hen  or  in  a  brooder)  or, 
if  chicks  are  not  wanted  *  at  that  season  may  be  allowed  to  sit  for  a  while  on 
nest  eggs.  In  either  case  they  should  be  well  fed. 

If  the  breeding  stock  can  be  given  range,  well  and  good.  If  that  cannot  be, 
it  will  be  found  that  with  exercise,  green  food,  and  meat  furnished  as  needed, 
as  good  chicks  can  be  obtained  from  fowls  in  confinement  as  from  fowls  at 
liberty — by  far  the  larger  number  of  good  fowls  are  from  yarded  stock,  f 
The  stock  should  not,  however,  be  crowded;  considerably  more  space  per 
hen  should  be  allowed  than  is  generally  given  laying  hens. 

The  food  need  not  be  different  from  that  of  the  laying  stock,  except  that  if 
the  layers  are  given  stimulants  of  any  kind,  it  is  better  to  leave  them  out  of  the 
food  for  the  breeders.  A  very  gallant  male  is  sometimes  so  solicitous  that  the 
hens  shall  get  all  the  food  they  can  eat,  that  he  neglects  to  eat  himself.  When 
this  is  the  case  the  male  must  have  extra  food  to  keep  him  in  condition.  A  tame 
bird  may  be  fed  from  the  hand  when  the  others  are  fed  ;  a  shy  bird  should  be 
removed  from  the  pen  in  the  evening,  fed  by  lantern  light,  and  given  a  good 
feed  again  next  morning  before  being  returned  to  the  pen.  If  at  any  time  a 
bird  in  the  breeding  pen  seems  dull,  though  not  downright  sick,  it  should  be 
removed  until  in  good  condition.  The  males  need  such  attention  most. 

*NoTK.  —  Early  chicks  hatched  in  this  way  generally  come  in  very  acceptably  for 
market  or  for  the  table.  They  need  not  be  from  the  breeding  stock,  and  can  be  eaten 
and  out  of  the  way  before  the  later  better  chicks  are  crowded  by  them. 

t  NOTE.  —  There  is  a  great  deal  of  nonsense  talked  and  written  about  free  range  and 
unlimited  range.  The  truth  is,  our  American  improved  varieties  of  domestic  fowls  are 
pre-eminently  domestic  in  their  habits,  and  confine  themselves  to  quite  narrow  limits 
unless  literally  starved  into  extending  them.  A  man  can  take  as  much  exercise  in  a 
garden  plot  as  on  a  ten  thousand  acre  ranch. 


POULTRT-CRAFT.  163 

Slight  disorders,  which  would  quickly  pass  off  were  the  bird  isolated,  may 
develop  serious  trouble  if  he  is  continued  in  service  when  not  in  condition. 
A  hen  out  of  condition,  and  moping,  is  likely  to  be  injured  by  the  male,  or 
worried  by  other  hens  unless  removed  from  the  pen.  Hens  that  go  broody 
should  be  broken  of  the  fever,  and  kept  laying  as  long  as  their  eggs  are  needed 
for  hatching.  After  that  it  is  better  to  allow  them  to  hatch  and  rear  a  brood. 
Whenever  it  is  feasible,  a  breeder,  though  using  but  one  mating,  should 
have  a  good  male  in  reserve,  in  case  the  one  he  has  put  in  the  breeding  yard 
prove  impotent,  or  meet  with  an  accident,  or  prove  in  any  way  unsatisfac- 
tory. Breeders  who  use  many  matings  always  hold  a  number  of  good  birds 
in  reserve.  Unless  one  does  so,  be  may  lose  a  season's  work  from  a  good 
pen  of  hens.  When  eggs  are  no  longer  needed  for  hatching,  it  is  better  to 
remove  the  males  from  the  pens,  and  not  allow  them  to  run  with  the  hens 
again  until  the  next  breeding  season.  They  only  worry  the  hens,  and  retard 
their  own  moult.  Often  the  old  males  show  no  attention  to  the  hens  except 
to  viciously  drive  them  about. 

229.  About  Eggs  for  Hatching.  —  The  eggs  should  be  gathered  daily  — 
oftener  if  there  is  danger  of  their  becoming  chilled  —  and  given  a  distinguish- 
ing mark,  or  marks,  which  will  identify  them  as  from  a  particular  pen.  If 
one  has  more  than  one  mating  of  a  variety,  the  name,  or  initials  of  the  name, 
of  the  variety  is  not  enough ;  the  number  of  the  pen  or  mating  should  be 
added.  The  need  of  this  is  obvious.  If  the  breeder  does  not  accurately 
mark  all  eggs  when  taken  from  the  nests,  he  never  knows  what  he  is  hatching 
himself,  and  his  customers  buying  eggs,  as  they  suppose,  from  several  matings, 
and  wishing  to  keep  account  of  the  chicks  from  each,  are  not  at  all  favorably 
impressed  if  the  eggs  sent  them  are  all  marked  alike,  or  not  marked  at  all. 
Who  can  blame  them,  in  such  a  case,  if  they  are  a  little  skeptical  as  to  the 
shipper  knowing  as  much  as  he  ought  to  about  his  stock  ?  There  cannot  be 
intelligent  selection  without  accurate  knowledge  of  the  results  of  matings; 
there  cannot  be  such  knowledge  without  proper  identification  of  eggs  and 
chicks  from  each  mating. 

In  sorting,  culling  the  eggs,  the  rule  should  be  to  reject  imperfect  eggs, 
small  eggs,  and  very  large  eggs ;  but  the  rule  must  be  applied  with  judgment, 
allowing  exceptions  in  some  circumstances.  A  hen  which  it  is  most  desirable 
to  breed  from  may  lay  a  poor  egg ;  and  it  may  be  more  advantageous  to  breed 
her  good  qualities  into  the  stock  —  and  this  fault,  if  it  appears,  out  —  than  to 
reject  her  eggs.  Many  eggs  with  imperfect  shells,  which  would  quite 
certainly  be  broken  if  given  hens  to  incubate,  can  be  hatched  in  a  machine. 
Extra  large  eggs,  which  in  most  incubators  could  not  be  hatched  with  smaller 
eggs,  can  be  hatched  under  hens  if  there  is  an  object  in  hatching  them. 

Eggs  for  hatching  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  dry  place  ;  —  a  temperature  of 
40°  to  50°  F.  is  best.  They  do  not  need  to  be  turned  at  all  while  thus  kept, 
nor  is  it  necessary  that  they  should  be  placed  in  any  particular  position.  Thii 


i64 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


statement  is  contrary  to  advice  commonly  given,  but  is  in  accordance  with 
general  practice  :  —  few  breeders  turn  the  eggs,  and  it  has  not  been  observed 
that  turned  eggs  hatch  better  —  and  is  confirmed  by  the  highest  authority  on 
artificial  incubation.  (See  Cyphers'  "Incubation  and  Its  Natural  Laws," 

P-  53)- 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT.  165 


CHAPTER  XI. 


Hatching  and  Rearing  Chicks. 

230.  The  Two    Systems.  —  There  are  two  methods  of   hatching  and 
brooding  chicks :   the  natural,  in  which  the  chicks  are  hatched  and  brooded 
by  hens ;   and  the  artificial,  in  which   they  are  hatched  in   incubators  and 
brooded  in  houses,  as  described  in  ^[46- 48,  or  in  separate  out-door  brooders. 
The  conditions  which  would  determine  the  choice  of  method  were  stated  in 
^[60.     The  natural  method  is  still  in  most  general  use.     The  other  is  oftener 
used  by  those  operating  on  a  large  scale,  and  is  coming,  year  by  year,  into 
more  general  use.     As  to  results, — that  depends  more  on  the  operator  than 
on  the  method.  *     As  good  chicks  can  be  reared  without  hens  as  with  them. 
In  using  the  natural  method,  the  operator  divides  the  responsibility  with  the 
hens ;   in  using  the  artificial  method,  he  assumes  it  all.     After  weaning,  the 
treatment  of  the  chicks  is  essentially  the  same,  no  matter  which  method  had 
been  previously  employed. 

THE  NATURAL  METHOD. 

231.  Remarks.  —  The   sitting   hen's  reputation  for  fickleness  and  per- 
versity is  not  deserved.     The  trials  of  those  who  find  the  care  of  sitting  hens 
and  hens  with  chicks  too  troublesome,  are  mostly  due  to  the  failure  to  furnish 
proper  facilities  for  the  work,  and  to  handle  the  stock  systematically.     It  is 
easy  to  handle  hens  and  chicks  in  large  numbers  if  one  goes  about  it  in  the 
right  way.     The  complaints  against  hens  are :  they  do  not  persist  in  broodi- 
ness ;  they  will  not  sit  elsewhere  than  on  their  laying  nests ;   after  being  set, 
they  desert  the  eggs ;  they  remain  too  long  away  from  the  nests,  allowing  eggs 
to  become  chilled;   they  quarrel   among  themselves,   and  break  eggs;   they 
trample  chicks  in  the  nests ;  they  kill  each  other's  chicks ;  their  chicks  are 
lousy,  etc.     These  are  preventable  evils. 

*  NOTE.  —  That  those  who  fail  with  one  method  often  succeed  with  the  other,  is  to  be 
attributed  to  personal  differences  in  taste  and  temperament,  and  in  the  bent  of  talent.  It 
seems  to  be  impossible  for  some  persons  to  acquire  the  little,  elementary,  engineering 
skill  required  to  successfully  operate  an  incubator ;  yet  these  same  persons  may  be  very 
expert  in  the  use  of  the  natural  method.  And  there  are  many  people  who  will  never 
force  themselves  to  do  the  routine  work  of  caring  for  sitting  hens  in  such  a  way  that  good 
results  are  a  practical  certainty;  but  will  take  pleasure  in  working  with  machines,  and 
will  be  very  successful  with  them.  Many  poultry  keepers  work  equally  well  with  either 
method ;  and  not  a  few  people  who  try  to  raise  fowls  fail,  no  matter  which  method  they 
try. 


166  POULTRT-CRAFT. 

232.  Selecting  Hens  for  Sitters.  —  As  has  been  said,  results  in  general, 
depend  on   the   operator  more   than   on  the  method.     In   using  the   natural 
method,  the  operator  has  an  early  opportunity  to  display  good  judgment  in 
the  selection  of  the  hens  to  be  used  for  sitters.     Not  all  hens  make  good 
sitters.     Not  all  that  have  done  well  through  the  period  of  incubation,  can  be 
trusted  to  bring  out  the  chicks  and  nurse  the  broods.     A  hen  that  is  not  in 
fair  condition  —  neither  thin  nor  grossly  fat, —  or  that  does  not  feel  hot  to  the 
hand  when  handled  (with  the  hand  under  the  body,  and  the  fingers  touching 
the  skin),  or  that  will  not   allow  herself  to  be  handled  freely,  after  dark,  at 
least,  should  not  be  used.  *     Nor  should  a  hen  with  a  vicious  disposition  be 
used ;  a  point  of  prime  importance  in  this  method  is  to  use  hens  that  are  easily 
managed. 

There  is  a  general  prejudice  against  large  heavy  hens  as  sitters,  because 
eggs  are  so  often  broken  by  them.  It  is,  to  say  the  least,  questionable  whether 
that  prejudice  is  well  founded.  The  large  hens  are  usually  very  gentle  and 
quiet,  deliberate  in  their  movements.  When  they  break  eggs  with  good 
shells,  it  is  because  they  are  lousy,  or  because  suitable  nests  have  not  been 
provided  for  them.  If  their  nests  are  roomy,  easy  to  walk  into  and  from, 
there  will  be  little  trouble  with  clean  hens  breaking  good  eggs.  There  are 
some  hens  of  all  sizes  that  are  nervous,  excitable,  and  break  eggs  constantly. 
Very  small  hens  are  not  desirable  sitters  in  cold  weather. 

233.  Where  to  Set  the  Hens. —  When  only  a  few  hens  are  set  each 
year,  the  nests  can  be  placed  almost  anywhere  that  the  hens  will  be  free  from 
annoyances.     When  more  than  three  or  four  are  to  be  sitting  at  one  time,  it  is 
best  to  provide  special  quarters  for  them.     Fig.  39,  shows  a  good  arrange- 
ment for  a  small  plant,   one    which  relieves  the  operator  of  the  trouble  of 
moving  the  hens  to  new  nests.     On  large  plants,  where  hens  are  used  for 
hatching,  the  usual  arrangement  is  to   set  them  in  the  surplus  stock  pens,  or 
in  pens  from  which  the  laying  stock  has  been  removed.     Whatever  plan  is 
adopted,  it  is  important  to  have  the  sitters  at  one  of  the  most  accessible  parts 
of  the  plant,  and  all  near  together. 

234.  The  Nests  —  should  be  like  those  shown  in  Figs.  37  and  38.      (This 
is  not  absolutely  necessary,  but  a  nest  with  a  front  just  high  enough  to  retain 

*  NOTE.  —  Some  shy  hens  lose  their  shyness  when  broody.  Others  cannot  at  first  be 
touched  by  daylight.  If  their  services  are  needed  for  hatching,  it  is  quite  an  easy  matter 
to  win  the  confidence  of  such  hens,  and  make  them  quiet  enough  to  handle.  All  that  is 
necessary  is  to  approach  them  cautiously,  coming  near  and  putting  the  hand  as  close  as 
they  will  allow  without  leaving  the  nest,  then  withdrawing  it  before  they  have  quite  made 
up  their  minds  to  fly.  Continue  this  at  convenient  intervals  until,  finding  they  are  not 
to  be  hurt,  they  remain  quiet,  and  at  length  allow  themselves  to  be  handled.  It  takes  a 
little  patience,  and  a  few  minutes  daily  for  several  days.  Too  many  poultry  keepers  try 
to  subdue  their  hens  by  main  strength  and  awkwardness  —  principally  awkwardness.  In 
no  case  should  a  hen  that  cannot  be  handled,  be  set, —  not  if  the  keeper  wants  to  manage 
things  himself. 


POULTRT-CRAFT.  167 

the  nesting  material  is  most  convenient  for  examining  the  eggs,  if  necessary, 
when  the  hen  is  on  the  nest,  and  is  about  the  only  style  of  handy  nest  in  which 
a  hen  can  be  confined) .  If  only  two,  four,  or  six  hens  are  set  in  the  same 
apartment,  open  nests  may  be  used — though  even  for  that  small  number,  the 
closed  nest  is  safer  and  surer ; —  but  where  many  hens  are  set  together  nests 
that  can  be  closed  are  indispensable.  The  nest  boxes  may  be  with  or  without 
bottoms.  They  should  be  placed  with  backs  to  the  Avails,  all  facing  the  center 
of  the  pen.  If  with  board  bottoms,  a  few  inches  of  earth  should  be  put  in 
each  nest,  slightly  hollowed,  and  the  corners  of  the  nest  filled  up  high  (that 
if  egg's  are  accidentally  pushed  toward  them  there  may  be  no  depression  into 
which  they  can  slip,  remain  and  get  cold),  before  the  nest  material  proper  is 
put  in.  Bottomless  nests  are  more  convenient,  and  more  easily  kept  clean. 
They  are,  however,  hardly  suitable  to  use  on  a  board  floor.  On  an  earth 
floor  the  bottomless  nest  is  by  all  odds  the  best.  The  floor  where  the  nest  is 
to  go  should  be  raked  smooth,  and  after  the  nest  is  in  place  the  earth  under  it 
should  be  formed  and  firmed  as  described  for  the  other  nests. 

For  nesting  material,  straw,  hay,  or  excelsior  may  be  used.  Very  long: 
coarse  hay  or  straw  is  not  suitable.  Soft  hay  or  straw  of  medium  leagth  is* 
better  than  cut  stuff ; —  the  nest  made  of  it  keeps  its  shape  better.  Just 
enough  material  should  be  used  to  make  a  good  firm  mat  over  the  earth f 
Unless  there  is  to  be  a  period  of  probation,  on  china  eggs,  for  the  hens,  each 
nest  should  be  shaped  and  well  Jlrmed  with  the  hand  before  eggs  are  placed 
in  it ;  or  the  hen  in  trying  to  shape  the  nest  with  eggs  in  it  will  break  some  of 
them.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  thoroughly  dust  the  nest  with  insect  powder  before 
placing  the  hen  on  it.  If  this  is  done,  and  the  hens  were  quite  free  from  lice, 
they  need  not  be  powdered  again  for  eleven  or  twelve  days. 


235.  Setting  the  Hens. —  It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  regular  days  —  once 
a  week  is  often  enough  —  for  setting  hens,  and  to  set  as  many  as  possible  each 
time,  that  if  there  are  many  infertile  eggs  the  sittings  may  be  doubled  up,  and 
that  the  broods  hatched  may  be  equally  distributed  to  just  as  many  hens  as  are 
needed  to  take  care  of  them.  If  open  nests  are  used  the  hens  are  often  given 
a  few  days  probation  on  nest  eggs,  before  being  trusted  with  the  eggs  which 
they  are  to  incubate.  If  closed  nests  are  used,  such  probation  is  unnecessary, 
and  a  distinct  gain  of  several  days  for  each  hen  is  made.  (Those  who  use  the 
open  nests  find  it  necessary  to  close  in  some  hens  at  first,  using  a  board  or  box 
for  that  purpose.  The  movable  cover  is  handier,  though  used  only  for  a 
few  days) . 

The  hens  should  be  moved  at  night,  carried  gently,  one  or  two  at  a  time. 
One  who  is  about  the  poultry  houses  much  in  the  daytime  can  generally  do 
such  work  without  a  light  much  more  quickly  and  with  less  annoyance  to  the 
hens,  than  if  a  lantern  is  carried.  If  a  light  must  be  used,  and  any  of  the 
hens  are  at  all  shy,  it  is  best  to  place  the  lantern  where  it  will  throw  just 


168  PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 

enough  light  into  the  sitters'  pen  to  enable  one  to  see  his  way  to  the  nests. 
The  hens  placed  on  the  eggs  in  the  dark  will  immediately  settle  down.  The 
cover  should  be  fastened  in  place,  and,  if  there  is  any  uncertainty  as  to  how 
a  hen  will  behave  on  finding  herself  in  a  strange  place  in  the  morning, 
a  piece  of  burlap  should  be  thrown  over  the  nest  to  keep  her  quiet.  If  this  is 
not  done  she  may  struggle  to  get  out,  and  in  her  struggles  break  many  eggs. 
The  burlap  need  rarely  be  used  longer  than  one  or  two  days. 

236.  The    Eggs    Set    should   be    quite    fresh, —  the    fresher   the    better. 
Eggs  three  weeks  or  more  old,  will  hatch  well  sometimes,  but  the   chicks 
will  be  longer  in   coming  out,  and  be  less  vigorous  than  chicks  from  the 
fresher  eggs  from  the  same  breeding  pens.     If  it  is  desired  to  set  eggs   of 
different  varieties  under  the  same  hen,  and  one  kind  of  eggs  is  a  little  slower 
hatching  than  the  other,  the  slowest  eggs  can  be  given  the  hen  first,  and  the 
others  put  in  a  day  later. 

237.  Keeping   a    Record    of   Hatches.  —  The   simplest   way   to   keep 
account  of  the  hens  and  eggs  set  is  to  tack  on  or  above  the  nests,  where  they 
can  be  easily  read,  cards  numbered  consecutively,  beginning  with  No.  i,  for 
the  first  hen  set,   and  having  on  them:    (i)   The  date  when  set;    (2)   The 
number  of  eggs  set;    (3)    Variety  or  kind;    (4)    Date  of  first  test,  number 
fertile, —  infertile, —  dead;    (5)   Second  test  and  notes  ;    (6)   Hatch, —  number 
of  live  chicks  taken  from  nest, —  number  killed  or  dying  after  hatching, — 
number  failing  to  break  the  shell, —  to  get  out  after  pipping.     Such  cards  can 
be  preserved,  and  will  furnish  complete  data  of  all  hatches.     If  it  is  preferred, 
the  records  can  be  kept  in  a  note  book,  the  nests  being  identified  by  numbers, 
or  by  descriptions  of  the  hens ;  but  the  card  method  works  better, —  is  more 
economical  of  time. 

238.  Food  and  Care  of  Sitting  Hens  —  The  best  food  for  sitting  hens 
is  whole  corn.     When  open  nests  are  used,  a  dish  of  corn,  a  pan  of  -water, 
a  box  of  grit,  and  a  dust  bath  are  provided,  and  the  hens  left  very  much  to 
themselves.     With  the  covered  nests,  food,  water,  etc.,  are  provided  just  the 
same.     The  hens  are  let  out  two  or  four  at  a  time,  and  the  nests  closed  again 
after   the  hens  go   back,   which   they  should  do   in  about  twenty  to  thirty 
minutes,  remaining  off  longer,  as  a  rule,  in  warm  weather  than  in  cold.     This 
work  can  be  looked  after  by  the  attendant  as  he  passes  and  repasses  the  sitters' 
pens  through  the  day.     Pens  eight  to  ten  feet  square  accommodate  twelve  to 
twenty  sitting  hens.     They  can  usually  be  let  out  four  at  a  time  ;   so  that  it  is 
a  simple  matter  to  get  the  hens  all  fed,  watered  and  shut  into  their  nests  com- 
fortable and  safe  for  another  twenty-four  hours  without  taking  an  appreciable 
amount  of  time  for  the  work.     The  nests  should  be  opened  in  the  same  order, 
and  at  about  the  same  time  day  after  day.     Hens  that  do  not  return  of  their  own 
accord  within  a  reasonable  time,  should  be  driven  back.     Any  that  are  too 


POULTRT-CRAFT.  169 

wild  to  do  this  with,  should  be  fed  late  in  the  evening.  As  hens  come  off, 
the  condition  of  each  nest  should  be  noted.  If  any  contain  broken  eggs  they 
should  be  cleaned  at  once,  if  still  moist ;  if  dry,  lit  is  as  well  to  mark  the 
nest,  and  clean  all  such  at  the  earliest  convenient  time.  Hens  will  be  more 
content,  keep  in  better  condition,  and  hatch  better  and  stronger  chicks  if 
allowed  to  go  out  doors  every  time  they  leave  the  nest.  They  should  be  well 
powdered  with  insect  powder  about  the  eleventh  or  twelfth  day  of  incubation, 
and  again  a  week  later. 

239.  Testing  the  Eggs. —  The  eggs  incubated  ought  always  to  be  tested 
as  early  as  fertility  can  be  certainly  determined  —  that  is,  about  the  fourth  or 
fifth  day  for  white  shelled  eggs,  and  two  to  four  days  later  for  eggs  with  dark 
thick  shells.  The  removal  of  the  infertile  eggs  gives  those  left  a  better  chance. 
If  there  are  many  infertile  eggs  a  part  of  the  hens  can  be  reset.  If  the  plan  is 
to  set  hens  once  a  week  the  test  of  the  eggs  last  set  may  be  made  early  the  same 
day,  and  hens  reset  with  the  new  lot.  Testing  ought  not  to  be  neglected.  It 
is  not  to  the  breeder's  interest  —  unless  he  merely  wants  to  rest  his  hens  from 
laying  —  to  allow  hens  to  devote  their  time  to  eggs  that  will  not  hatch. 
During  the  season  he  needs  to  get  chicks  out  as  rapidly  as  possible,  and  it  is 
poor  policy  to  "go  it  blind,"  as  they  do  who  do  not  test  the  eggs.  Even  if 
eggs  are  running  high  in  fertility,  it  is  better  to  test,  for  there  may  be  some 
dead  germs,  rotting.  A  rotten  egg  breaks  easily,  and  when  one  does  break  in 
a  nest  the  chances  of  a  good  hatch  are  reduced  —  besides,  there  is  the  nasty  job 
of  cleaning  the  nest  and  eggs. 

Egg  Testers  —  are  sold  by  incubator  manufacturers  and  dealers  in  poultry 
supplies.  A  home  made  tester  can  be  made  in  a  few  minutes  of  a  small  box 
of  such  size  and  dimensions  that  a  common  hand  lamp  or  a  lantern  can  be  set 
in  it.  If  a  lamp  is  to  be  used,  one  side  of  the  box  should  be  hinged,  or  slide  in 
grooves ;  a  hole  should  be  cut  in  the  top  directly  over  the  flame,  another  in 
one  side  opposite  the  flame.  Over  this  last  hole  a  piece  of  felt  or  of  an 
old  rubber  boot  leg,  having  in  it  a  hole  a  little  smaller  than  an  egg  will  pass 
through,  should  be  tacked.  If  a  lantern  is  used  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  knock 
one  end  out  of  the  box,  that  the  lantern  may  be  put  down  in  it,  and  fix  the  hole 
opposite  the  flame  as  described  above. 

The  testing  should  be  done  in  a  dark  room.  If  the  pen  in  which  the  hens 
are  set  cannot  be  made  dark  enough  by  covering  up  the  windows,  it  is  best  to 
test  after  dark.  The  quickest  and  easiest  way  is  to  place  the  tester  on  top  of 
the  nest  box,  stoop  down,  take  all  the  eggs  from  under  a  hen,  putting  them  on 
the  floor  in  front  of  the  nest.  As  the  eggs  are  examined  replace  the  fertile 
ones  under  the  hen,  and  throw  the  infertiles  aside ;  then  go  on  to  the  next 
hen. 

In  testing,  the  light  shining  through  the  egg  held  against  the  hole  in  the  side 
of  the  chimney  or  box  shows  the  condition  of  the  egg.  An  infertile  egg  is 
clear.  An  egg  containing  a  live  germ,  after  being  incubated  for  a  week,  is 


1 70  POULTRY-CRAFT. 

quite  evenly  clouded,  but  lightest  at  the  small  end ;  has  the  air  space  at  the 
large  end  clearly  defined,  and  the  line  marking  the  air  space  remains  fixed  as 
the  egg  is  turned  before  the  light.  An  egg  containing  a  dead  germ  may  show 
more  faintly  clouded  than  a  fertile  egg,  as  if  less  advanced ;  or  the  germ  may 
be  discernible,  black  and  unstable  —  not  dark  red  and  in  a  fixed  position,  as  in 
the  live  egg.  As  decomposition  proceeds  and  the  egg  becomes  decidedly 
rotten,  it  appears  more  unevenly  clouded,  and  the  line  of  the  air  space  tends 
to  remain  level  as  the  egg  is  turned  before  the  light.  The  infertile  eggs  may 
be  fed  to  chicks  and  fowls. 

The  novice  must  expect  to  make  some  mistakes  in  testing.     Give  the  egg 
the  benefit  of  the  doubt ;  mark  it,  and  test  again  a  few  days  later. 

240.  Moistening   Eggs   during  incubation  is  not  necessary.     In  a   dry 
climate,  if  the  heat  is  intense,  or  a  dry  wind  is  blowing  while  the  eggs  are 
hatching,  it  may  be  necessary  to  dampen  the  nest  and  the  earth  about  it  to 
prevent  drying  of  the  membrane  after  the  shell  is  pipped;  but  sprinkling 
before  the  shell  is  broken  can  hardly  have  any  effect  on  the  contents  of  the 
egg- 

241.  Chilled  Eggs.  —  If  hens  are  set  in  covered  nests,  and  the  keeper 
sees  that  they  go  back  in  time  and  shuts  them  in,  there  will  be  no  cold  eggs. 
If  eggs  do  get  cold,  it  is  as  well  to  continue  incubation,  and  note  results.     In 
the  early  part  of  the  period  their  condition  can  be  determined  by  testing ;  later 
one  must  wait  until  the  time  is  up ;  then,  if  chicks  are  hatched,  judge  from  the 
chicks  themselves  whether  they  are  worth  keeping.     Eggs  under  hens  will 
stand  much  more  cooling  than  in  an  incubator.     Many  instances  have  been 
known  of  eggs  exposed  to  an  almost  freezing  temperature  for  some  time  hatch- 
ing good  strong  chicks.     Chilling  seems  to  be  less  injurious  during  the  second 
week  of  incubation  than  earlier  or  later. 

242.  When  the  Chicks  are  Hatching  —  it  is  best  to  watch  them  quite 
closely.     Some  hens  become  excited  when  the  chicks  begin  to  "  cheep,"  and  in 
their  restlessness  crush  eggs,  so  that  the  chicks  cannot  turn  in  the  shells.  *     If 
possible,  such  hens  should  be  changed  with  hens  that  have  been  sitting  for  a 
shorter  period.     A  few  hens,  perhaps  one  in  a  hundred,  will  kill  chicks  as 
fast  as  they  hatch,   and  one  must  be  on  the   lookout  for  these.     Trampling 
chicks  in  the  nests  after  hatching,  is  as  often  due  to  weak  chicks  as  to  clumsy 
hens ;  but  there  are  some  hens  not  to  be  trusted,  and  some  that  will  get  along 
very  well  if  the  nests  are  not  too  full,  but  not  so  well  with  a  full  nest.     When 
there  are  many  hens  available,  it  is  not  hard  to  so  shift  them  around  that  the 
losses  of  chicks  in  the  nests  are  kept  low. 

243.  Helping  Chicks  Out  of  the  Shell.  —  If  chicks  are  alive,  and  seem 

*  NOTE. —  Such  restlessness  is  not  due  to  annoyance  at  being  disturbed  by  the 
attendant  examining  the  eggs.  These  restless  hens  will  fuss  and  crush  the  eggs  though 
left  entirely  to  themselves, —  and  the  same  is  true  of  many  hens  that  trample  chicks. 


POULTRY-CRAFT.  171 

to  be  strong,  though  apparently  unable  to  get  out  of  the  shells  after  pipping, 
they  should  be  let  alone  until  all  that  can  get  out  by  themselves  are  out ;  then 
the  shell  may  be  gently  broken,  and  the  cap  removed.  If  the  membrane  is  not 
dried  to  the  chick,  it  should  be  left  to  help  itself  out.  If  the  membrane 
adheres  to  the  down,  it  should  be  moistened  with  warm  water  —  or  saliva, 
which  is  better  —  and  carefully  detached.  If  this  can  be  done  without  causing 
bleeding,  the  chick  is  likely  to  come  on  all  right ;  if  it  bleeds,  it  will  probably 
die. 

244.  After  Hatching.  —  When  the  chicks  are  hatched  and  dry,   they 
should  be  removed  from  the  nests  and  distributed  among  the  best  of  the  hens, 
each  medium  sized  hen  being  given  from  ten  to  twelve  chicks  in  cold  weather, 
and    eighteen   or   twenty   in   warm   weather.     Larger  broods  are  sometimes 
given,  and  hens  may  do  well  with  them ;  but  the  chicks  do  not  often  make  as 
good  growth  as  when  less  crowded.     It  is  better  to  limit  the  number  to  as 
many  as  the  hen  can  keep  warm  the  coolest  nights  she  has  to  brood  them. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  the  chicks  constantly  increase  in  size,  while  the 
hen  remains  the  same.     A  hen  that  has  made  a  poor  hatch,  for  which  her  con- 
dition  seems  to  be  responsible,  ought  not  to  be  given  a  brood.     It  is  likely 
that  her  vitality  is  low,  and  that  instead  of  nourishing  the  chicks,  she  will  rob 
them  of  vitality  when  she  broods  them,  and  they  will  in  consequence  dwindle 
and  die,  seemingly  without  cause.     A  scaly  legged  hen  ought  never  to  be  used 
as  a  mother  —  though  if  not  too  bad,  she  may  be  used  to  incubate  eggs. 

245.  Puny   and    Deformed   Chicks   should   be   killed  at  once.     It   is 
neither  kindness  nor  policy  to  keep  them.     This  is  one  of  the  hardest  lessons 
for  the   poultry  keeper  to  learn.     The  weaklings  appeal  to  his  sympathies. 
He  cannot  find  it  in  his  heart  to  take  away  their  slender  chances  of  life,  and 
he  is  averse  to  voluntarily  giving  up  any  results  of  his  labor  except  for  value 
received.     If  one  will  make  a  practice  of  killing  every  weakling  as  he  takes 
the  chicks  from  the  nests,  he  will  see  the  general  condition  of  his  young  stock 
much  improved,  and  will  be  far  less  troubled  with  the  common  ills  of  chick- 
hood. 

246.  Marking  Chicks.  —  If  the  chicks  are  to  be  marked,  it  should  be 
done  by  making  punch  marks  in  the  webs  of  the  feet  as  they  are  removed 
from  the  nests,  using  one  of  the  markers  made  especially  for  the  purpose. 
Marking  can  be  done  at  any  time,  but  chicks  may  become  mixed  after  being 
taken  from  the  nests ;  and  further,  if  the  marking  is  done  when  they  are  but  a 
few  hours  old,  the  cut  will  bleed  but  little,  and  there  is  not  the  danger  of 
chicks  picking  each  other's  feet  as  they  often  do  when  marking  is  postponed 
until  they  are  older,  and  the  cut  bleeds  more  freely.     As  there  are  two  webs 
in  each  foot,  it  is  possible  so  to  mark  the  chicks  that  the  offspring  of  sixteen 
different  matings  of  each  breed  or  variety  can  be  readily  identified  by  the 


172  POULTRT- CRAFT. 

absence   of  a   mark   for    mating   No.    i,   and  the  ^ 

positions  of  the  punch  marks  for  Nos.   3  to    16,          1  '  l\         '  P* 

inclusive.  £  /$\        /[\ 

247.  Keeping  Chicks  Free  from  Lice.  —  If  &  ^ 

the  sitting  hens  have  been  treated  to  prevent  the  2j 

rapid  increase  of  lice  while  they  are  incubating,  V 
the  chicks  should  be  quite  free  from  lice  when  i 

taken   from   the   nests;    but,   as   lice   are    elusive  6 

creatures,    and   not   always   found  when  wanted,  "J>  /[\ 

and  as  a  very  few  of  them  can  do  a  great  deal  of  Q  vj\ 

damage  to  a  young  chick  in  a  short  time,  it  is  best  ^  "  JP. 

to  powder  all  the  young  chicks  when  taken  from  J,  ^61  \        /  10s 

the  nest,  and  at  intervals  of  about  a  week,  until  JQ  /^|\        /^]\ 

three   or  four  weeks    old.     After  that   they  need  |V  /K  /K 

not  be  powdered  unless  unmistakable  indications  ( 

of  the  presence  of  lice  are  observed.  \£\          '6|o^ 

The  easiest,  quickest,  and  surest  way  to  treat  |Q  ,^1^ 

chicks  for  lice,  is  to  powder  them  in  the  coops  in  .  .  >K 

the  evening  or  early  in  the  morning,  using  a  large  *  *  ^ 

powder  gun,  which  can  be  bought  at  any  store ;  J5  -MOv         /olov 

or  a  box  with  a  perforated  cover,  giving  the  chicks  -in  /K  /K 

a  good  sprinkling  of  it  —  the  hen  being  meantime 
held   in   one    hand,  —  working   it   well    into    the 

Fig.  78.     Punch  Marks  for  Chicks. 

feathers   of  the  hen,   held   head   downward,   and 

puffing  it  into  every  corner  of  the  coop,  which  should  then  be  closed.  If  the 
work  is  done  at  night,  it  should  be  left  closed ;  if  in  the  morning,  it  should  be 
kept  closed  for  half  an  hour  or  so.  When  coops  like  that  in  Fig.  44  are  used, 
the  coop  is  tipped  back  during  the  operation  of  powdering.  At  first  thought  this 
may  seem  an  awkward  way  to  go  at  it,  but  it  will  be  found  that  neither  hens 
nor  chicks  can  get  out  through  the  slide  door  as  they  can  through  a  hinged  top 
when  it  is  moved.  Some  poultrymen  use  lard  on  the  heads,  under  the  wings, 
and  at  the  vents  of  young  chicks,  to  kill  lice.  This  mode  is  effective,  but  too 
slow,  as  it  necessitates  the  handling  of  each  and  every  chick.  With  the 
powder  twelve  or  twenty  chicks  are  treated  as  quickly  as  one,  and  with  fresh 
strong  powder  the  treatment  is  effective  every  time. 

248.  Colors  of  Chicks  When  Hatched.—  Those  not  familiar  with  the 
appearance  of  chicks  of  the  various  pure  breeds  when  first  hatched,  are  often 
disappointed  when  they  see  the  color  of  the  chicks  in  the  down  so  different 
from  that  of  the  mature  fowl,  and  imagine  that  there  is  something  wrong  with 
the    stock.       Chicks    of  white  varieties    are    generally  canary  colored  when 
hatched ;  but  White  Plymouth  Rock  and  Wyandotte  chicks  are  often  quite 
dark  gray.    Light  Brahma  chicks  are  mostly  canary  colored,  or  canary  colored 
with  one  or  two  small  irregular  black  spots  on  head  and  back.     A  few  are 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRA  FT.  1 73 

quite  gray.  Chicks  of  black  varieties  are  mostly  black  on  the  backs ;  canary 
colored  on  the  breasts.  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  chicks  are  gray  on  the  backs, 
lighter  underneath,  with  generally  a  light  splash  on  top  of  the  head.  The 
cockerels  are  much  lighter  colored  than  pullets  from  the  same  matings.  In 
nearly  all  varieties  there  is  more  diversity  in  the  color  of  the  chicks  when 
hatched  than  when  feathered. 

249.  The  First  Feed  for  the  Chicks  need  not  be  essentially  different 
from  those  which  are  to  follow ;  nor  need  the  food  given  the  first  few  weeks 
be  different  in  kind  from  that  given  later.     The  young  chick  needs  precisely 
the  same  kinds  of  food  that  the  older  chick  and  the  mature  fowl  need ;  but  it 
needs  it  in  form  adapted  to  smaller  digestive  organs,  and  needs  food  oftener. 
The    matter    of  feeding  has   been   so  fully   covered  in  ^[   137  — 146,  special 
rations  for  young  chicks  being  given  in  ^[  146,  21  —  28,  that  the  same  ground 
need  not  be  gone  over  here.     Chicks  may  be  fed  as  soon  as  they  will  eat. 
There  is  not  the  slightest  danger  of  their  injuring  themselves  by  eating  before 
their  systems  are  ready  for  food.* 

250.  Water  for  Young  Chicks. —  It  is  possible  to  grow  young  chicks  up 
to  four  or  five  weeks  of  age  without  giving  them  water.     Nearly  all  expert 
poultry  keepers  are  agreed,  however,  that  the  chicks  ought  to  have  water  from 
the  start.     They  should  have  constant  access  to  it,  and  if  by  any  chance  they 
are  deprived  of  it  long  enough  to  become  very  thirsty,  they  ought  not  to  be 
allowed  to  drink  freely  of  cold  water  immediately.    By  giving  the  water  warm 
at  first,  cramps  and  chills  are  prevented. 

251.  About  Cooping.  —  For  the  first  few  days  the  chicks  are  as  well  off 
indoors  in  a  box  just  large  enough  for  the  hen  to  move  about  comfortably.    If 
the  weather  is  cold  and  wet,  they  should  be  kept  in  still  longer ;  but  not  in 
too  close  quarters.    A  good  plan  is  to  confine  the  hens  in  small  coops  —  boxes 
with  slats  across  the  fronts  will  do  —  and  allow  the  broods  of  several  hens  to 
run  on  the  same  pen  floor.     When  the  time  comes  to  put  them  outdoors,  the 
hens  should  still  be  confined.     Many  promising  broods  are  ruined  by  the  hens 
running   the  chicks  "off   their  legs,"  wearing  them  out  completely.     Even 
after  the  chicks  are  strong  enough  to  keep  up  with  a  foraging  hen,  it  is  better 
to  place  the  hen  under  restraint ;  then  each  chick  can  run  just  as  much  or  as 
little  as  it  pleases,  and  those  that  are  weaker  than  the  others — yet  not  weak- 
lings —  have  a  better  chance  than  when  compelled  to   keep  the  pace  set  by 
the  hen  or  the  strongest  chicks. 

Many  hens  which  are  themselves  model   mothers,  are  vicious  toward  the 

*  NOTE. —  It  is  often  stated  that  chicks  are  injured  by  being  fed  before  the  yolk 
absorbed  previous  to  exclusion  is  assimilated,  and  that  they  should  not  be  fed  until 
twenty-four  hours  old.  Some  chicks  will  eat  within  twelve  hours  of  being  hatched,  and 
some  will  not  eat  for  thirty-six  hours  or  more,  though  food  is  frequently  before  them  and 
the  hen  inviting  them  to  eat. 


174  POULTRT-CRAPT. 

chicks  of  other  hens,  picking  and  worrying  them  whenever  they  come  near. 
This  can  only  be  prevented  by  making  it  impossible  for  the  hens  to  get  at 
strange  chicks ;  or,  making  it  easy  for  the  chicks  to  escape  from  angry  hens. 
With  coops  as  shown  in  Fig.  44,  having  the  slats  of  the  coop  pens  perpen- 
dicular, the  chick  which  wanders  into  a  strange  coop  will  almost  invariably 
get  away  before  being  hurt.  The  coop  shown  in  Fig.  45,  gives  still  more 
complete  protection,  but  is  too  expensive  to  use  unless  it  is  necessary  to 
protect  from  hawks  and  cats,  for  which  purpose  that  coop  was  specially 
constructed. 

With  a  coop  that  is  tightly  built,  and  can  be  closed  tight,  chicks  can  be 
reared  outdoors  in  winter  when  the  thermometer  ranges  to  20°  below  zero. 
(Chicks  hatched  in  winter  stand  cold  much  better  than  late  chicks  —  early 
summer  chicks — stand  extreme  heat).  This,  of  course,  cannot  be  done 
when  there  is  much  snow,  but  in  a  snowy  country  such  coops  can  be  set 
under  a  rough  shed  where  the  ground  is  tolerably  dry,  and  good  chicks  reared  ; 
not  on  a  commercial  scale  for  market, —  but  for  hardy  stock  birds  of  the  large 
breeds. 

Sometimes  hens  do  not  brood  their  chicks  as  much  as  they  should  on  cold 
bleak  days.  In  that  case  they  should  be  shut  into  the  coop  house,  and  the 
door  left  open  just  enough  to  let  the  chicks  pass  in  and  out.  The  coop  should 
be  made  quite  dark.  In  the  dark  the  hens  will  brood  the  chicks  whenever 
they  come  to  them. 

When  coops  with  perpendicular  sides  are  used,  shade  can  be  given  by 
spreading  pieces  of  burlap  over  the  tops  of  the  runs.  A  grain  sack,  which 
gives  two  thicknesses  of  burlap,  will  keep  the  ground  inside  the  pen  dry 
through  quite  a  long  shower,  and  dry  all  day  through  a  drizzling  rain. 

Coops  placed  on  grass  should  be  moved  every  few  days.  When  coops  are 
kept  permanently  in  one  spot,  the  ground  under  the  coop  pen  should  be 
frequently  cleaned  of  droppings.  The  coop  houses  need  cleaning  about  twice 
a  week  while  the  chicks  are  small.  As  soon  as  the  chicks  are  so  large  that 
one  night's  use  of  the  coop  leaves  it  dirty,  coops  should  be  cleaned  daily. 

If  the  coop  floors  become  damp,  and  there  is  not  sunshine  to  dry  them,  a 
few  handfuls  of  dry  chaff,  or  a  little  dry  road  dust  or  coal  ashes,  should  be 
spread  over  them. 

252.  Making  Hens  Lay  While  Brooding  Chicks,  and  keeping  them 
brooding  chicks  after  commencing  to  lay,  relieves  the  poultry  keeper  at  the 
same  time  of  two  of  the  most  objectionable  features  of  the  natural  method. 
Generally  the  hens  wean  their  chicks  shortly  after  beginning  to  lay.  If  they 
continue  brooding  the  chicks  they  rarely  lay.  In  coops  with  roomy  pens  the 
hens  can  be  got  to  laying  in  about  a  fortnight  after  the  chicks  are  hatched, 
and  will  continue  laying  and  brooding  the  chicks  as  long  as  is  desirable.  The 
hens  are  put  in  laying  condition  by  being  fed  only  three  times  a  day,  instead 
of  five  or  six  times,  as  when  fed  with  the  chicks ;  all  but  three  of  the  feeds 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT.  1 75 

given  the  chicks  being  placed  away  from  the  coops  out  of  the  reach  of  the 
hens.  Then  after  the  hen  has  laid  for  a  few  days,  she  stops  clucking  to  the 
chicks ;  but  as  hen  and  chicks  use  the  same  coop,  she  cannot  help  brooding 
them.  Often  hens  will  go  broody  while  laying  in  the  coops,  and  after  sitting 
on  the  floor  for  a  few  days  come  out  as  attentive  to  the  old  brood  as  when  it 
was  hatched.  Not  one  hen  in  fifty  will  drive  her  chicks  from  her  after  she 
begins  laying  if  she  has  no  chance  to  associate  with  other  fowls. 

THE  ARTIFICIAL  METHOD. 

253.  Remarks. —  The    circumstances    to    which    this    method    is    best 
adapted,  the  choice  and  placing  of  incubators,  and  the  different  arrangements 
for  brooding,  were  considered  in  ^[60,  61,  and  ^[45 — 48.     The  use  of  machines 
to  take  the  place  of  hens  does  not  relieve  the  operator  of  the  necessity  of  giving 
continuous  close  attention  to  the  details  of   incubation.     On  the  contrary,  his 
work  becomes,  in  a  way,  more  exacting.     Machines  do  not  run  themselves, 
nor  can  a  child  run  them.     Purchasers  of  incubators  and  brooders  get  with 
their  machines  the  manufacturers'  directions  for  running  them.     These  are 
not  always  fully  adequate ;  they  cannot  apply  exactly  in  all  cases ;  there  is 
always  something  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  operator.     More  new  operators, 
however,  make  mistakes  in  disregarding  or  misinterpreting  instructions  than 
in  following  them  too  closely.     Radical  changes  from  prescribed  methods  are 
almost  certain   to  be  wrong.     In  departing  from  instructions — (a  course  to 
be  taken  only  when  he  is  fully  convinced  of  its  necessity,  and  has  a  clear  idea 
of  what  he  expects  to  accomplish  by  the  change) — the  operator  should  feel 
his  way  as  cautiously  as   one   balancing   scales  when  weighing  out  a  costly 
article. 

While  there  are  differences  in  the  methods  of  running  different  machines, 
and  like  machines  in  different  places,  there  are  certain  general  facts  of 
universal  application,  and  it  is  by  these  that  the  operator  must  be  guided  in 
adjusting  instructions  to  suit  his  circumstances.  In  the  following  paragraphs 
the  statements  of  noted  experts  and  authorities  have  been  arranged  to  give  in 
condensed  form  the  latest  and  best  opinions  and  advices  on  the  principal 
points  in  artificial  hatching  and  brooding.* 

254.  The  Care  of  the  Lamp.— 

"  The  lamp  should  be  trimmed  every  day.  I  prefer  morning  to  any  other  time.  The 
charred  portion  of  the  wick  can  be  cut  off  with  a  pocket  knife.  Turn  the  wick  down  just 
a  little,  to  make  sure  there  is  no  sound  wick  above  the  burner  tube.  Then  place  the  heel 
of  the  knife  on  a  level  with  the  top  of  the  tube,  and  draw  the  full  length  of  the  blade 
while  crossing  the  tube.  This  will  make  a  clean  cut.  Be  very  careful  to  hold  the  knife 

*  NOTE. —  Most  of  the  statements  credited  to  Mr.  Cyphers,  in  subsequent  paragraphs, 
are  from  "  Incubation  and  Its  Natural  Laws."  Those  credited  to  Mr.  McFetridge,  are 
from  "  Poultry."  Others  are  from  contributed  articles  in  Farm-Poultry,  and  from  earlier 
books  by  Mr.  Boyer,  in  this  series. 


1 76  PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 

at  a  true  level,  so  that  one  cut  will  do.  Then  turn  wick  down  so  as  to  preserve  its 
smoothness  while  cleaning  the  tubes.  Wipe  all  bits  of  loose  charred  wick  off.  Then 
with  a  small  piece  of  sandpaper  make  the  burner  bright.  The  sandpaper  should  be  very 
fine,  so  as  not  to  scar  the  burner.  *  *  * 

"  Always  wipe  all  oil  from  the  top  of  the  lamp.  Never  fill  quite  full.  Now  and  then 
lift  the  screen  that  is  around  the  burner,  and  thoroughly  clean  all  dust  from  it.  Should 
the  light  flicker,  see  if  the  screen  is  not  filled  up  with  dust.  The  dust  absorbs  oil  from  the 
rvtck,  and  should  the  burner  ever  get  hot  enough  to  form  gas  it  -will  explode.  *  *  * 

"It  is  a  good  plan  to  turn  on  a  low  flame  at  first  after  trimming,  and  in  the  course  of 
twenty  minutes  go  back  and  see  if  the  flame  is  sufficient;  if  not  it  can  then  be  safely 
turned  to  the  desired  point.  Remember  that  the  flame  increases,  instead  of  diminishing, 
after  being  trimmed.  This  alone  causes  serious  trouble  sometimes,  as  some  operators 
when  they  have  trimmed  their  lamps  turn  the  flame  on  full,  thus  heating  the  burner,  and 
increasing  the  flame  till  the  lamp  begins  to  smoke,  and  the  chimney  fills  with  soot.  As  a 
consequence  the  lamp  goes  out.  *  *  * 

"  The  lamp  should  have  flame  enough  at  all  times  to  keep  the  regulator  in  operation, 
but  not  to  excess.  Keep  all  draft  from  the  lamp.  The  flame  should  be  steady,  and 
should  never  '  flick  up.'  "  (McFetridge). 

255.     Temperature. — 

"  The  bulb  of  the  thermometer  should  be  placed  on  a  fertile  egg,  and  its  temperature 
maintained  as  nearly  uniform  as  possible  at  102  degrees  during  warm  weather,  and  102  1-2 
degrees  during  the  colder.  *  *  *  Eggs  will  stand  considerable  variation  in  temperature 
before  the  lives  of  the  germs  are  destroyed.  During  the  earlier  stages  of  incubation  the 
development  will  proceed  slowly  under  a  temperature  of  98  or  99  degrees ;  no  more  dying, 
if  as  many,  as  when  incubating  at  a  temperature  of  101 ;  and  if  the  heat  is  gradually 
raised  the  chicks  grow  quite  rapidly  during  the  last  stages,  and  are  excluded  on  time.  A 
high  temperature  during  earlier  stages  of  incubation,  however,  is  usually  fatal.  *  *  * 
After  the  eleventh  day  a  temperature  of  no  or  112  degrees,  if  not  too  prolonged,  is  not 
necessarily  fatal.  The  greatest  excess  of  heat  can  probably  be  withstood  after  the 
sixteenth  day."  (Cyphers). 

"  If  the  egg  chamber  is  104  or  106  degrees,  which  is  the  extreme  limit  without  injury 
to  the  embryo,  taking  the  temperature  from  dead  eggs,  the  heat  of  the  live  ones  may  be 
as  high  as  no  or  112  degrees.  If  the  temperature  is  taken  from  the  eggs  (which  is  the 
only  proper  method)  the  heat  should  be  either  102  or  103  degrees  at  the  start,  and  never 
exceed  105  degrees  — 106  being  the  extreme  limit  of  safety.  Eggs  which  have  been 
heated  to  no  degrees  may  hatch  out,  but  nine  times  out  of  ten  the  chicks  are  not  worth 
raising."  (Campbell). 

"When  a  maker  tells  you  his  incubator  is  self -regulating,  and  will  hold  the  correct 
temperature,  he  does  not  mean  it  will  do  your  thinking  for  you,  predict  weather  changes, 
etc.  When  he  tells  you  to  keep  the  temperature  at  a  certain  degree,  you  are  certainly 
making  a  mistake  and  wasting  your  energies  if  they  are  devoted  to  preventing  the  interior 
of  the  egg  chamber  showing  any  variation  from  the  degree  mentioned.  A  good  regulator 
is  one  which  maintains  a  proper  equipoise,  and  if  from  any  cause  whatever  the  interior 
temperature  changes,  it  will  automatically  and  gradually  bring  the  temperature  back  to 
the  proper  point  without  permitting  it  to  reach  a  dangerous  point  on  either  side  of  the 
hatching  degree.  A  very  little  patience,  and  a  knowledge  of  the  fact  that  a  fluctuation  of 
several  degrees,  (if  not  too  long  maintained),  will  not  injure  the  hatch  in  the  least,  will 
save  you  a  great  deal  of  annoyance  on  that  score."  (Homan). 

"  If  at  any  time  before  the  tenth  day  you  find  the  thermometer  registering  101  1-2  or 
102  degrees,  say  in  three  hours  after  you  have  attended  to  the  machine,  it  is  all  right. 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT.  1 77 

Don't  try  to  force  the  temperature  up,  as  it  will  incline  to  raise  rather  than  lower,  unless 
the  room  in  which  you  have  the  machine  is  very  cold;  but  on  the  contrary,  if  the 
machine  goes  up  to  103  degrees,  and  is  going  over  that  point,  you  will  have  to  adjust  the 
regulator  a  little."  (McFetridge). 

256.  Ventilation  and  Moisture. —  The  egg  chamber  requires  to  be 
ventilated,  that  the  gases  generated  in  the  eggs  may  be  promptly  thrown  off. 
The  currents  of  air  created  by  ventilation  may  cause  a  more  rapid  evaporation 
of  the  fluids  of  the  egg  than  takes  place  in  natural  incubation.  Some 
operators  use  no  moisture,  some  none  until  the  seventeenth  or  eighteenth  day, 
some  a  little  throughout  the  hatch.  The  principle  upon  which  the 
application  of  moisture  depends  is  thus  lucidly  explained  by  Cyphers : 

"  Evaporation  from  the  egg  must  be  held  at  such  a  point  that  the  fluids  in  the 
embryonic  structures  are  ample  to  keep  the  membranes  moist  up  to  the  time  of  exclusion, 
and  the  rate  of  evaporation  is  not  the  same  under  any  two  degrees  of  temperature.  Eggs 
may  be  successfully  incubated  under  a  temperature  that  will  exclude  the  chick  by  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  day,  or  under  one  that  will  not  exclude  the  chick  until  the 
twenty-second.  The  most  vigorous  chicks  will  be  produced  when  the  eggs  are  incubated 
under  a  temperature  that  will  ripen  the  embryo  by  the  close  of  the  twentieth  day;  and  any 
variation  from  this  temperature  will  proportionately  affect  the  vitality  of  the  chicks  and 
lower  the  percentage  of  the  hatch.  If  we  have  a  rate  of  evaporation  to  balance  the 
temperature  for  a  twenty-day  exclusion,  this  rate  of  evaporation  will  not  answer  for  a 
nineteen  or  a  twenty-one-day  —  there  being  too  great  an  amount  of  evaporation  for  a 
nineteen-day,  and  too  little  for  a  twenty-one-day.  In  neither  case  will  many  of  the  eggs 
hatch,  but  if  we  supply  more  humidity  (the  rate  of  movement  of  the  air  remaining  the 
same)  for  a  nineteen-day,  and  less  for  a  twenty-one-day  exclusion,  we  will  have  a  chance 
for  a  fair  hatch.  If  we  have  a  degree  of  humidity  to  balance  a  twenty-day  exclusion,  and 
then  raise  or  lower  the  temperature  half  a  degree,  it  will  injuriously  affect  the  hatch, 
while  a  greater  variation  will  ruin  it.  A  constant  variation  of  a  degree  in  temperature 
will  have  no  injurious  effect,  but  if  the  temperature  is  permanently  raised  or  lowered  a 
degree,  the  atmospheric  conditions  for  a  twenty-day  exclusion  will  not  answer. 

"  It  has  been  universally  believed  that  evaporation  from  the  eggs  could  only  be  con- 
trolled by  controlling  the  humidity  of  the  air  in  the  hatching  chamber.  The  humidity  of 
the  air  is  but  one  controlling  factor,  however,  as  with  the  same  degree  of  humidity 
evaporation  will  be  slow  or  rapid  according  to  the  rate  of  movement  of  the  air,  while  it 
is  not  the  same  under  any  two  degrees  of  temperature ;  and  the  constant  variation  in  these 
two  factors  is  the  cause  of  the  extremely  varying  results.  With  a  due  appreciation  of 
these  facts,  artificial  incubation  should  be  more  successfully  prosecuted  in  the  future  than 
it  has  been  in  the  past. 

"  Evaporation  is  mainly  influenced  by  the  rate  of  movement  of  the  air  within  the 
hatching  chamber,  and  secondarily  by  the  degree  of  humidity.  The  rate  of  movement  of 
the  air  is  controlled  by  the  area  and  location  of  the  ventilating  openings  and  temperature 
of  the  outer  atmosphere.  The  degree  of  humidity  cannot  be  maintained  constant  when 
maintaining  a  constant  movement  of  the  air,  and  it  is  not  necessary  that  it  should  be. 
The  first  consideration  is  to  secure  a  constant  rate  of  movement,  and  then  keep  the  air 
from  becoming  too  dry.  This  is  practically  all  that  is  necessary  in  supplying  humidity 
when  the  rate  of  movement  of  the  air  is  maintained  constant." 

Cyphers'  rules  for  ventilating,  applying  specially  to  bottom  ventilation,  will 
not  be  given  here.  His  method  is  to  adjust  the  ventilation  to  keep  the  air 


1 78  PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 

pure,  then  ascertain  by  experiment  the  amount  of  moisture  needed  to  maintain 
proper  evaporation.  The  simplest  method  of  determining  the  exact  quantity 
of  moisture  necessary  is  by  testing  the  eggs.  According  to  Boyer  : 

-,  ^*^~        ^^^  "  The  air  cell  on  the  fifth  day  should  measure  about 

a  quarter  of  an  inch  ;  on  the  tenth  day,  a  half  an  inch  ; 
on  the  fifteenth  day,  about  five-eighths  of  an  inch; 
and  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  on  the  nineteenth 
day, —  the  measurement  taken  in  the  middle  of  the 
egg.  Such  air  cells  indicate  the  proper  amount  of 
moisture;  if  less  than  that,  too  much  moisture  is 
given  ;  if  more,  there  is  a  lack  of  moisture." 


257.    Turning  the  Eggs.— 

"The  eggs  should  be  turned  twice  a  day  up  to  the  nine- 
teenth day.*    If  this  is  not  done,  many  of  the  germs  will 
dry  fast  to  the  shell  during  the  early  stages,  owing  to  the 
influence  of  a  high  temperature  and  the  breaking  up  of 
the  arrangement  of  the  albumen,  which  then  allows 
the  germ  to  be  pressed  upward  with  some  force.    *  *  * 
Fig.  79.  DiagraTshowing  Correct  Pro-  When  the  egg  is  not  turned  during  the  later  stages  of 
portions  of  Air  Space  at  Different  Stages  of  incubation,  the    embryo    does    not  attain   a   natural 
Incubation.  position,   and   has   little  chance   of   being    excluded. 

(By  courtesy  of  Prairie  State  Incu.  Co.)  Wheil  turning  the  eggs  during  cold  weather  it  should 
be  done  as  quickly  as  possible,  so  that  eggs  and  chamber  lose  but  little  warmth.  The 
position  of  the  trays  should  be  shifted  at  least  once  a  day,  so  as  to  equalize  the  heat,  as 
in  no  large  machine  can  the  eggs  be  heated  sufficiently  near  a  uniform  temperature  to 
warrant  leaving  them  in  the  same  relative  position  throughout  the  hatch."  —  (Cyphers). 

258.  Cooling,  or  Airing,  the  Eggs. —  Some  of  the  highest  authorities 
disagree  on  this  point.  The  disagreement  when  analyzed,  seems  to  be  more  a 
matter  of  form  than  of  fact.  Cyphers  maintains  that  cooling  is  unnecessary, 
and  seems  to  leave  the  reader  to  infer  that  it  is  objectionable.  Campbell  and 
McFetridge,  while  admitting  that  good  hatches  may  be  made  without  cooling 
the  eggs,  assert  that  better,  more  vigorous  chicks  are  hatched  when  the  eggs 
are  properly  aired.  Campbell's  rule  for  airing  is:  "None  at  all  in  cold 
weather;  a  great  deal  in  hot  weather,  with  variations  to  suit  between."  The 
directions  for  cooling  given  by  McFetridge  are : 

WITH  A  HOT  WATER  MACHINE. —  Commence  to  cool  on  the  fourth  day.  Keep  them 
out  for  a  few  minutes  only  at  first.  Always  close  the  doors  of  a  hot  water  machine,  and 
cool  the  eggs  outside.  (If  the  doors  of  a  hot  water  machine  are  left  open,  the  water  in 
the  tank,  which  is  the  source  of  heat,  is  cooled).  Do  this  every  morning.  Toward  the 
last  part  of  the  hatch, —  about  the  seventeenth  day, —  let  them  cool  twenty  minutes  with 
the  temperature  of  the  room  about  60  degrees.t 

*  NOTE.— Some  operators  do  not  begin  turning  until  after  the  fourth  day,  but  all  authorities  are  agreed  as  to  the 
necessity  of  turning  from  that  time  up  to  the  nineteenth  day,  and  that  after  the  nineteenth  day  they  should  not  be 
turned. 

t  NOTE.— As  to  the  rate  at  which  eggs  will  cool,  Cyphers  says:  —"Under  the  influence  of  an  atmospheric 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT.  1 79 

WITH  A  HOT  AIR  MACHINE. —  Cool  the  eggs  by  leaving  the  doors  open  with  the  eggs 
in  the  machine.  Never  cool  below  85  degrees.  Don't  cool  down  to  85  degrees  every 
time  —  in  general  to  90  or  92  degrees.  *  *  *  With  the  hot  air  machine  I  cool  the  eggs  in 
the  evening;  and  in  a  room  where  the  temperature  is  about  60  degrees,  on  the  sixteenth 
day  and  after,  leave  the  door  open  as  long  as  twenty  minutes.  Sometimes  on  the 
nineteenth  day  I  leave  the  door  open  for  nearly  an  hour.  *  *  The  proper  time  to  cool 
eggs  is  when  they  are  turned.  In  cooling  a  hot  air  machine,  say  for  instance,  twenty 
minutes,  always  open  the  door  for  ten  minutes  before  and  ten  minutes  after  turning. 

Testing  Eggs  —  see  IF  239. 

259.  When  the  Chicks  are  Hatching. —  Instructions  which  state  that  a 
machine  is  to  be  kept  closed  while  a  hatch  is  in  progress,  are  not  to  be  under- 
stood as  meaning  that  under  no  circumstances  is  the  door  to  be  opened  ; — only 
that  the  door  is  not  to  be  opened  unnecessarily  —  out  of  mere  idle  curiosity. 
Most  machines  have  glass  doors,  through  which  the  progress  of  the  hatch  may 
be  watched,  and  the  need,  if  such  exist,  of  intervention  from  the  operator,  be 
discovered.     What  to  do  when  chicks  are  hatching,   is  thus  briefly  and  fully 
stated  by  Campbell : 

"  To  get  out  the  largest  possible  number  of  chicks,  I  wait  until  quite  a  lot  of  the  shells 
are  pipped ;  then  I  open  the  machine,  and  as  rapidly  as  possible  turn  all  the  pips  up,  and 
place  the  eggs  as  close  to  the  door  as  possible.  Those  which  pip  in  the  air  cell,  are  safe ; 
those  which  pip  below,  very  often  choke  at  once  if  not  turned  up ;  prompt  turning  up 
will  save  most  of  them.  If  the  weather  is  cold  this  turning  up  process  is  done  only 
twice ;  if  hot,  it  can  be  done  as  often  as  desired.  Then  when  they  begin  to  come  out  keep 
an  eye  on  them,  and  all  that  can  turn  around  and  break  through  both  shell  and  membrane 
will  get  out  best  if  let  alone.  Those  which  turn  and  do  not  break  through  every  time 
they  move,  are  very  apt  to  smother.  All  such  need  help  by  simply  pulling  off  the  top 
part  of  the  shell  to  give  them  air,  and  then  let  them  come  out.  This  must  never  be  done 
until  the  chick  is  struggling  to  get  out ;  neither  must  the  trays  be  pulled  out.  Open  the 
door  and  reach  in,  and  work  as  quickly  as  possible.  *  *  *  Many  operators  make 
mistakes  in  removing  the  chicks  from  the  egg  chamber.  If  the  day  is  hot  and  close  the 
chicks  will  suffer  very  much  after  they  become  dry  if  too  many  are  out  at  once.  If  they 
are  all  removed  in  a  cold  day  the  heat  will  drop  too  suddenly  for  what  are  still  to  come 
out.  My  rule  is  to  remove  them  as  soon  as  dry  if  they  pant ;  but  if  it  is  cold  I  only 
remove  a  few  at  a  time,  as  thej  become  too  much  crowded  for  comfort." 

260.  Brooding  Young  Chicks. —  It  is  often  said  that  hatching  chicks  is 
comparatively  easy ;  to  successfully  rear  them,  is  the  difficult  thing.     There 
might  be  less  seeming  foundation  in  fact  for  this  statement  if  a  larger  per  cent 
of  the  chicks  hatched  artificially  were  really  fit  to  live  when  taken  from  the 
machine.     There  are  chickens  and  chickens. 

The  chicks  are  generally  left  in  the  incubators  for  from  fifteen  to  twenty- 
four  hours  after  hatching.  They  are  then  removed  to  brooders,  as  described 
in  f  46  —  48.  Points  on  feeding  brooder  chicks  are  given  in  ^  146,  16  —  20. 

temperature  of  65  degrees,  the  eggs,  during  the  early  stages  of  incubation,  will  lose  one  degree  each  two  minutes. 
Under  an  atmospheric  temperature  of  35  degrees,  they  will  lose  more  than  a  degree  a  minute.  In  the  latter  stage  of 
incubation,  when  the  egg  has  in  itself  a  source  of  heat,  the  rate  of  loss  is  lower,  and  consequently  the  egg  cools  : 
slowly  in  a  given  temperature." 


iSo  POULTRY-CRAFT. 

The  impression  is  gaining  ground  among  experts  that  the  most  important 
thing  in  brooding  chicks,  is  the  temperature ;  that  a  wrong  temperature  has 
been  responsible  for  many  troubles  attributed  to  food  or  other  causes.  The 
mistake  most  often  made  has  been,  keeping  the  brooders  too  warm.  On  this 
point  Boyer  says : 

"  Begin  the  heat  at  90  degrees,  and  keep  it  as  near  that  as  possible  for  the  first  week  or 
ten  days.  Then  gradually  reduce  until  (after  the  chicks  are  removed  to  the  large  brooder) 
they  become  accustomed  to  a  temperature  of  70  degrees,  which  should  be  when  about 
three  weeks  of  age.  What  a  mistake  to  begin  at  100  degrees,  and  thus  compel  the  little 
ones  to  endure  torture,  instead  of  comfort.  This  high  temperature  is  what  makes  weak 
and  delicate  chicks.  *  *  *  Thermometers  can  and  should  be  used  to  determine  the  heat ; 
but  after  the  chicks  are  made  to  '  feel  at  home/  a  better  sign  that  all  is  well  is  the  manner 
in  which  the  chicks  act.  If,  when  closing  up  the  house  for  the  night,  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  little  ones  are  stretched  out  on  their  brooder  floor,  with  their  bills  buried  in  the  sand, 
we  know  that  nothing  more  can  be  done  for  them  ;  everything  is  right.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  they  crowd  up  together,  unsettled,  there  is  not  enough  warmth.  Or,  if  they  sit 
with  their  mouths  open,  the  heat  is  too  great." 

Brooder  chicks  must  be  confined  more  closely  than  chicks  with  hens,  but 
should  still  have  fresh  air  and  outdoor  exercise,  especially  if  they  are  to  be 
reared  for  stock  birds. 

The  brooder  house,  of  whatever  style,  must  be  ventilated.  In  this  the  same 
principles  apply  as  in  ventilating  houses  for  adult  fowls,  with  the  difference 
that  the  amount  of  cold  air  admitted  to  the  house  must  be  very  much  less, 
because  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  house  for  young  chicks  warmer.  The  rule 
in  this,  as  in  determining  the  temperature  in  nursery  brooders  and  under  hovers, 
must  be  the  condition  and  conduct  of  the  chicks  —  the  house  must  be  kept  com- 
fortable for  them  to  run  about  in,  and  warm  enough  to  keep  the  temperature 
under  the  hovers  up  to  the  required  degree. 

261.  Preventing  the  Common  Ailments  of  Chicks. —  The  ailments 
most  common  to  young  chicks  under  both  systems  of  management,  are  "  bowel 
trouble,"  "  cramps,"  "  roup,"  "  drooping  wings,"  which  terms  cover  a  multi- 
tude of  greater  and  lesser  ills.  Sometimes  the  real  origin  of  a  trouble  is  in  the 
condition  of  the  parent  stock.  Sometimes  the  keeper  is  directly  at  fault. 
Often  a  poultryman  uses  a  dangerous  diet  or  method  for  years  without  bad 
results  —  if  his  treatment  is  on  the  whole  good ;  but  eventually  it  is  going  to 
cause  trouble.  When  "bowel  trouble,"*  "roup,"  or  "drooping  wings" 
prevail  in  a  flock  in  a  mild  form,  they  should  yield  to  good  care,  proper  food, 
and  simple  remedies.  If  they  have  become  acute,  it  is  better  to  kill  chicks 
affected  —  though  in  doing  so  the  entire  lot  be  cleaned  out. 

"  BOWEL  TROUBLE  "  is  due  to  sloppy  foods,  some  kinds  of  rich  foods, 
chills,  colds,  over-heating,  etc.  It  can  be  checked  in  the  beginning  by  keeping 
the  chicks  warm  —  not  hot  —  in  dry  quarters,  at  a  uniform  temperature,  giving 

•Nor*. —  For  more  correct  descriptions  of  all  these  complaints,  see  the  chapter  on 
diseases. 


POULTRY-CRAFT.  181 

rather  dry  food,  and  boiled  milk  to  drink.  The  chicks  ought  not  to  be  allowed 
to  reach  the  stage  of  being  "  gummed  up  behind  "  before  treatment  is  begun ; 
nor  should  the  treatment  be  carried  so  far  that  it  will  bring  on  the  opposite 
evil  —  constipation.  Even  in  the  best  lots  there  will  be  from  time  to  time 
isolated  cases  of  this;  but  with  right  conditions  it  cannot  become  epidemic. 

44  ROUP,"  colds,  and  kindred  ailments,  are  due  to  dampness,  exposure,  filthy 
quarters,  over-crowding.  Wrong  conditions  should  be  corrected,  and  such 
remedies  used  as  are  prescribed  for  hens  in  ^  174. 

u  CRAMPS  "  are  often  nothing  more  than  the  death  struggles  of  chicks  that 
have  been  ailing  for  some  time.  The  cramps  which  kill  healthy  chicks  in  a 
short  time  are  mostly  caused  by  drinking  too  heartily  of  very  cold  water,  by 
choking,  or  by  extreme  heat  of  the  sun  when  the  chicks  are  not  hardened 
to  it. 

u  DROOPING  WINGS"  are  due  to  general  debility,  which  may  result  from 
any  one,  or  from  several  of  a  great  variety  of  causes.  The  chick  simply  lacks 
strength  to  hold  itself  together  properly,  erect  would  be  said  of  a  human  being. 
The  fault  is  most  noticeable  in  Leghorn  chicks,  but  is  common  in  poor  con- 
ditioned chicks  of  all  varieties.  Prevention  must  begin  in  the  condition  of  the 
parents,  and  continue  in  the  management  of  the  chicks.  Proper  food  and  care 
will  correct  the  trouble  if  not  of  too  long  standing.  Chicks  which  have  been 
going  about  long  with  drooping  wings,  are  not  worth  trying  to  cure  or  rear. 

262.  Keeping  the  Chicks  Growing.  —  Success  with   chicks  requires 
that  they  be  kept  constantly  growing  from  the  shell  to  maturity.     The  slightest 
check  is  a  loss  that  cannot  be  made  good.     Growing  chicks  is  exacting  work. 
One  must  get  up  early  in  the  morning  (unless  he  adopts  the  method  of  the 
breeder  who  said  it  was  not  necessary  to  get  up  early,  if  one  sat  up  late  enough 
planning  how  to  get  the  work  done  without  early  rising).      The  beginner 
cannot   expect  to  do  uniformly  good  work.     With  the  best  of  instruction, 
advice,  and  attention,  mistakes  will  sometimes  occur.     To  do  everything  as 
and  'when  it  ought  to  be  done,  requires  greater  familiarity  with  the  work  than 
any  one  can  reach  in  one  or  two  seasons. 

263.  Weaning  Chicks. —  No  definite  age  can  be  given  as  the  right  one 
at  which  to  wean  chicks.     The  condition  of  the  stock  and  of  the  weather  must 
guide.     Chicks  should  remain  with  hens  or  in  brooders  as  long  as  they  need 
or  are  likely  to  need  heat  in  addition  to  that  generated  in  their  own  bodies. 
Early  in  the  season  they  need  some  heat  until  ten  or  twelve  weeks  old.     They 
may  not  die  without  it,  but  exposure  to  a  temperature  so  low  that  they  huddle 
together,  will  always  retard  growth.    Chicks  reared  by  hens  may  be  left  in  the 
coops,  only  the  hen  being  removed,  as  long  as  they  are  not  too  crowded  at 
night.     In  coops  as  shown  in  Fig.  44,  they  will  generally  roost  on  top  of  the 
coop  -or  lie  outside  on  the  ground  as  soon  as  it  becomes  uncomfortable  inside. 
One  of  the  best    methods   of   handling   weaned   chicks   is  in   coops   of   the 


1 82  POULTRT-  CRAFT. 

style  shown  in  Fig.  46.  In  these  they  can  be  colonized  until  the  time  comes 
for  putting  them  into  winter  quarters.  When  removed  to  these  coops,  they 
should  be  confined  to,  and  fed  in  them,  for  a  few  days,  until  they  will  return 
to  them  when  let  out.  Directions  for  feeding  are  giving  in  ^146,  21 — 28. 
Beyond  keeping  the  coops  clean,  supplying  food  and  water  regularly,  clos- 
ing the  coops  at  night,  and  opening  them  in  the  morning,  the  chicks  now 
should  need  no  care  —  even  the  closing  and  opening  of  coops  may  be 
omitted  if  there  is  no  danger  of  their  being  molested  at  night. 

264.  Teaching  Chicks  to  Roost. —  Chicks  of  Leghorn  and  other  light 
weight  breeds  will  begin  roosting  of  their  own  accord  when  six  or  eight  weeks 
old.     Chicks  of  the  heavier  breeds  often  do  not  roost  until  taught  to  do  so  by 
the  keeper.     The  general  practice  is  to  keep  chicks  of  medium  sized  breeds  on 
the  floor  until  about  three  months  old,  and  chicks  of  the  largest  breeds  for  a 
month  or  two  longer.     Unless  the   floor  is  kept  clean  and  the  chicks  well 
bedded,  it  is  better  to  teach  all  to  roost  early.    If  suitable  wide  roosts  are  used 
there  is  no  more  danger  of  crooked  breasts  than  on  the  floor,  and  many  poul- 
trymen  think  the  general  advantages  of  getting  the  youngsters  on  the  roosts 
where  they  cannot  crowd  and  huddle  in  corners,  and  are  not  soiled  by  their 
own  and  each  other's  droppings,  more  than  compensate  for  what  keel  bones 
are  twisted. 

Often  chicks  can  be  taught  to  roost  by  putting  in  low  roosts  and  placing 
with  them  one  or  two  old  hens  or  chicks  that  are  in  the  habit  of  roosting.  If 
this  plan  cannot  be  tried,  or  does  not  work,  a  wide  board  should  be  placed 
close  to  the  wall,  about  a  foot  from  the  ground,  and  the  chicks  placed  on  it 
after  dark,  night  after  night,  until  they  will  go  to  it  of  their  own  accord. 
After  that,  a  wide  roost  the  regulation  distance  from  the  wall,  may  be  substi- 
tuted for  the  board. 

265.  Separating  the  Sexes. —  When  the  chicks  are  weaned  the  cock- 
erels and  pullets  of  the  more  precocious  breeds  should  be  separated.     The 
slow  maturing  breeds  may  be  allowed  to  run  together  for  four  or  five  months 
if  it  is  not  convenient  to  keep  them  apart ;    but  in  any  case  the  separation 
should  be  made  at  a  relatively  early  age  —  before  the  cockerels  begin  to  annoy 
the  pullets.     If  the  young  males  can  be  put  where  they  never  see  a  fowl  of 
the  opposite  sex,  they  live  together  more  peaceably,  and  develop  better.    There 
is  not  often  any  difficulty  in  distinguishing  the  sexes  when  the  time  comes  for 
separating  them.     Once  in  a  while  there  is  a  cockerel  which  looks  more  like 
a  female  than  a  male  at  that  age ;  but  such  a  bird  is  not  likely  to  annoy  the 
pullets,  and  if  put  with  the  cockerels  may  be  buffeted  about  a  great  deal. 

266.  Rearing   Chicks    in   Confinement. —  Chicks  reared  specially  for 
market  are  always  kept  quite  closely  confined,  that  all  food  eaten  may  go  to 
the  production  of  flesh ;  but  there  is  a  feeling  among  poultry  raisers  that  stock 


PO  UL  TR  r~  CRAFT.  \  83 

chicks  should  be  given  range  while  growing.  The  bald  fact  that  chicks  are 
confined,  or  not  confined,  counts  for  nothing  either  way.  Unquestionably  the 
most  favorable  condition  for  obtaining  the  best  development  at  least  expense, 
is  found  where  the  chicks  have  a  range  which  furnishes  them  a  considerable 
part  of  their  food  —  all  green  food  and  insect  food,  and  seeds  in  variety  — with- 
out their  foraging  so  far  that  too  much  of  what  is  eaten  is  expended  in  muscular 
energy.  This  condition  depends  on  quite  small  flocks  being  widely  separated, 
and  is  found  much  less  often  than  is  generally  supposed ;  for  most  people  who 
give  their  chicks  range  expect  them  to  forage  over  a  considerable  area,  and. 
indeed,  compel  them  to  do  so ;  sometimes  intentionally  by  withholding  food  •, 
sometimes  unintentionally  by  neglecting  to  give  a  variety  of  food.  The 
method  of  colonizing  the  growing  stock  generally  gives  range  only  in  name, 
for  there  are  so  many  placed  on  so  small  an  area  (and  often  so  little  forage  on 
the  ground)  that  the  amount  of  food  each  chick  gets  by  foraging  is  insignifi- 
cant. It  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  feed  quite  as  much  and  as  often  as  if  they 
were  confined  in  bare  yards.  The  real  advantage  of  the  method  is  its  cheap- 
ness and  convenience,  not  the  superiority  of  the  stock  produced  by  it.  The 
coops  cost  little.  No  fences  are  used.  The  chicks  are  reared  outside  of  the 
winter  quarters  (occupied  by  adult  stock  the  year  round)  and  thus  the  old  stock 
is  not  crowded  out  at  sacrifice  prices  to  make  room  for  the  young  ones  —  and 
can  be  worked  off  seasonably,  gradually,  and  profitably. 

Not  all  poultry  keepers  are  so  situated  that  they  can  give  their  young  stock 
range  even  by  colonizing.  This  need  not  deter  them  from  rearing  chicks,  nor 
need  they  think  it  impossible  to  rear  as  good  chicks  as  those  who  give  the 
youngsters  range.  Just  as  good  chicks  can  be  reared  in  confinement  (rather 
close  confinement,  at  that)  —  as  on  the  best  range  ;  —  if  the  keeper  will  avoid 
crowding,  keep  them  free  from  lice,  keep  their  quarters  clean,  feed  a  liberal 
well  balanced  ration  judiciously,  and  give  opportunity  for  such  exercise  as  is 
given  laying  hens  and  breeding  stock  in  confinement  —  but  less  of  it  compul- 
sory. Indeed,  when  the  stock  runs  well  up  in  the  hundreds,  confinement  is  a 
much  better  plan  than  colonizing  with  the  flocks  so  near  together  that  they 
can — and  consequently  do  —  feed  as  one  flock;  for  in  large  flocks  the  chicks 
are  crowded,  (crowd  each  other),  no  matter  how  much  room  they  have.  The 
question  of  giving  the  growing  stock  range  is  just  a  question  of  opportunity 
and  convenience.  If  one  can  give  them  the  right  kind  of  range,  that  is  a  very 
great  advantage  to  him.  If  one  must  keep  them  confined,  he  is  handicapped 
to  some  extent,  but  not  so  badly  that  he  cannot  get  results  as  good  as  the  best, 
—  only  he  must  work  harder  for  it. 

267.  Culling  the  Growing  Stock.  —  In  breeding  poultry  for  market 
exclusively,  culling  proper  is  not  practiced.  The  chicks  are  merely  sorted, 
the  marketable  ones  taken  as  needed  —  the  others  left  until  better  grown.  In 
breeding  laying  stock,  a  very  few  of  the  choicest  cockerels  may  be  reserved 
for  breeding  purposes ;  the  rest  should  be  marketed  at  the  age  when  they  will 
bring  most  profit.  The  culling  of  the  pullets  extends  only  to  marketing  poorly 


i&f.  pO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 

developed  specimens  and  those  showing  defects  likely  to  diminish  their  future 
usefulness.  In  breeding  thoroughbred  stock,  proper  culling  is  of  great 
importance.  It  is  not  often  that  a  poultryman  has  such  superabundance  of 
room  that  it  will  pay  him  to  keep  inferior  specimens  until  grown.  The 
economic  aspects  of  the  question  will  be  considered  in  the  next  chapter. 
Here  comment  will  be  limited  to  suggestions  as  to  the  selection  of  the  poorer 
specimens. 

There  are  five  classes  of  defects  to  be  considered  in  culling :  — 

(i).  DEFORMITIES,  which  are  constitutional  and  ineradicable.  These  are 
not  always  noticeable  in  very  young  chicks,  and  those  that  are  noticed  then 
may  be  of  such  character  that  they  do  not  affect  table  qualities.  Chicks  so 
deformed,  should  be  allowed  to  live  until  large  enough  to  be  eaten,  and  no  longer. 

(2).  GENERAL  WEAKNESS  AND  WORTHLESSNESS,  which  may  be  consti- 
tutional, or  may  be  due  to  mismanagement  affecting  particular  chicks  more 
than  others.  These  chicks  are  simply  spoiled  in  the  growing.  It  is  useless 
to  try  to  make  good  stock  of  them. 

(3).  BLEMISHES  (according  to  the  Standard)  WHICH  ARE  IRREMEDIABLE. 
Of  this  class  are  such  faults  as  feathered  legs  on  chicks  of  clean  legged 
breeds,  scantily  feathered  legs  in  full  feathered  varieties,  color  faults  that  will 
not  be  outgrown,  radical  departures  from  typical  shape.  Birds  thus  defective 
are  not  worth  keeping  for  stock  birds ;  but  many  of  the  pullets  may  be 
reserved  for  layers  if  there  is  room  for  them,  and  if  they  can  be  used  or  sold 
as  such;  otherwise,  the  quicker  they  go  to  market  the  more  profitable  they  are. 

(4).  BLEMISHES  WHICH  MAY  BE  OUTGROWN — such  color  defects  as 
white  in  the  flights  of  black  chicks,  red  in  white  ear  lobes, —  or  the  reverse, — 
poor  muscular  development  on  big  framed  chicks,  scant  plumage  on  chicks 
with  good  bone  and  muscle,  etc. 

(5).  FAULTS  WHICH  (to  the  uneducated  taste)  APPEAR  TO  BE  EXCEL- 
LENCIES. The  most  conspicuous  example  of  this  kind, — really  the  only  one 
of  importance, —  is  premature  attainment  of  the  symmetry  of  a  mature  fowl. 
This  fault  is  frequently  met  in  all  varieties.  It  is  an  accompaniment  of 
precocity.  The  symmetrical  chicks  are  at  first  much  more  attractive  than 
their  less  precocious  companions,  and  the  novice  is  apt  to  think  he  has  a 
"world  beater,"  when  he  has  only  a  miserable  runt,  as  he  finds  when  all  are 
matured. 

The  beginner  cannot  practice  very  close  culling,  for  it  requires  a  few  years 
of  watching  chicks  as  they  grow,  and  noting  the  changes  as  they  approach 
maturity,  to  enable  him  to  know  the  defects  which  will  be  outgrown,  and 
those  which  will  increase.  Each  year,  however,  he  should  cull  closer  and 
closer,  both  in  selecting  for  the  breeding  yard,  and  in  handling  the  growing 
stock. 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT.  1 85 

268.  Caponizing. —  The  question  of  the  profitableness  of  caponizing 
cannot  be  settled  for  all  classes  of  poultry  keepers,  in  all  sections  of  the 
country,  on  the  same  basis.  Such  matters  have  a  way  of  gradually  adjusting 
themselves  to  conditions.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  practice  of  caponiz- 
ing is  growing.  It  seems  at  present  equally  clear  that  caponizing  is  being 
found  profitable  mostly  in  sections  where  grain  is  cheap,  and  is  gaining  favor 
more  among  farmers  than  among  poultrymen.  The  reasons  for  this  seem 
clear.  The  special  poultry  farmer,  with  limited  accommodations,  and  under 
the  necessity  of  buying  food  for  his  stock,  cannot  afford  to  keep  on  hand  any 
considerable  quantity  ot  stock  that  is  not  earning  something  to  swell  his 
current  income.  He  makes  more  by  devoting  his  space  and  time  to  laying 
hens  than  he  could  by  buying  grain  to  feed  to  capons ;  but  with  the  general 
farmer  it  is  otherwise.  He  has  not  the  special  facilities  needed  to  handle 
many  early  chicks,  and  therefore  cannot  always  get  his  surplus  cockerels  to 
market  while  they  will  bring  good  prices  as  broilers  or  soft  roasters.  The 
food  consumed  by  a  fowl  costs  him  comparatively  little,  even  when  he  feeds 
salable  grain.  If  instead  of  marketing  his  cockerels  when,  at  five  or  six 
pounds  each,  they  would  bring  him  only  a  few  dollars  a  dozen,  he  can 
caponize  them,  and  with  twenty  or  thirty  cents  worth  of  corn,  (or,  even 
using  a  more  costly  grain),  he  can  produce  capons  which  will  weigh  ten  or 
twelve  pounds  when  the  market  is  at  its  best,  and  may  then  net  him  twelve 
to  sixteen  cents  a  pound,  he  can  make  cockerels  every  bit  as  profitable  as 
pullets. 

The  demand  for  nice  large  capons  is  constantly  increasing  —  small  ones  are 
salable,  but  do  not  bring  the  best  prices.  The  supply  now  comes  chiefly 
from  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Iowa, —  all  great  grain  growing  and  poultry 
producing  states. 

The  operation  of  caponizing  is  not  particularly  difficult.  To  perform  it, 
instruments  specially  made  for  the  purpose  are  required.  These  can  be 
found  advertised  in  poultry  journals,  and  as  full  instructions  for  operating,  and 
for  the  care  of  the  birds  before  and  after  the  operation,  are  furnished  with 
each  set  of  instruments,  the  details  of  the  operation  need  not  be  given  here. 
The  operation,  of  course,  requires  skill,  which  comes  only  with  practice. 
The  per  cent  of  loss  of  birds  caponized  by  a  skilled  operator,  is  small.  The 
large  breeds  make  the  best  capons.  Chicks  not  capable  of  making  large 
growth  are  hardly  worth  caponizing.  The  operation  is  performed  at  two  or 
three  months  —  preferably  before  the  comb  begins  to  develop. 


1 86  PO  UL  TR  r-  CRA  FT. 


CHAPTER    X 


Selling  Poultry  and  Eggs. 

SELLING  MARKET  EGGS  AND  TABLE  POULTRY. 

269.  The  Poultry  Crop  Does  Not  Move  Itself.  — The  saying  :  "  Good 
poultry  sells  itself,"  originated  among  the  marketmen,  the  middlemen.     It 
may  be  true  for  dealers  who  display  their  wares  daily  in  public  places.     It  is 
not  always  true  for  the  ordinary  producer:  —  not  without  qualifications,  and, 
especially,  not  in  the  beginning.     To  sell  to  best  advantage ;  to  dispose  of 
different  products  at  just  the  right  time ;  to  get  the  best  possible  returns  for 
everything  produced,  usually  requires  thought,  foresight,  and  some  energetic 
hustling  for  custom.     The  instances  where  a  poultry  keeper's  product,  how- 
ever small,  is  well  sold  with  little  effort  on  his  part,  are  comparatively  rare. 
Even  when  his  surplus  is  sold  at  the  door,  he  needs  to  give  some  thought  to 
market  conditions,  and  keep  informed  of  fluctuations  in  prices ;  for  however 
honest  the  buyer  may  be,  the  interests  of  buyer  and  seller  in  the  same  transac- 
tion cannot  be  identical,  and  the  buyer,  as  is  natural  and  right,  looks  after 
his  own  interest  jirst. 

270.  From  Producer  to  Consumer. —  There  are  several  ways  of  dis- 
posing of  goods.     They  may  go  from   producer  to   consumer  direct,  at  first 
hand ;  or,  by  longer  and  more  devious  channels,  through  many  hands.     The 
farmers'  wives  sell  their  eggs  and  fowls  to  collectors  going  about  the  country 
with  wagons,  or  trade  them  for  supplies  at  the  grocery  store  or  meat  market, 
or  sell  them  to  families  in  the  nearest  town.     The  keepers  of  a  few  dozen  hens 
sell  their  small  surpluses  to  neighbors,  or  barter  them  at  the  stores.     The 
business   poultryman   sells  direct    to  private  families,   or    to   hotels,    or   to 
retailers  who  want  choice  stock ;  or,  if  he  has  not  succeeded  in  getting  such 
customers  for  his  products,  or  finds  it  more  to  his  interest  to  give  all  his  time 
to  producing,  and  let  others  sell  for  him — for  some  good  poultrymen  are  very 
poor  salesmen ;  and  sometimes  a  commission  house  can  handle  a  poultryman's 
product  more  profitably  for  him  than  he  can  for  himself,  —  ships  all  his  stuff 
to  a  commission  merchant.     The  producer  has  to  settle  for  himself  which  way 
of  disposing  of  goods  will  pay  him  best.     It  is  a  question  of  local  market  con- 
ditions, personal  circumstances,  and   the  kind  of  business   done, —  whether 
large  or  small,  and  what  special   combination   of  the   different  branches  of 
poultry  culture  has  been  made. 


POULTRT-CRAFT.  187 

271.  Good  Stock  is  Sometimes  Hard  to  Sell. —  This,  those  who  have 
something  to  sell  only  at  irregular  intervals  soon  find  out.     A  man  may  go 
into  the  best  market  in  the  world  with  a  first  class  article  in  good  demand  at 
the  time,  and  experience  some  difficulty  in  getting  rid  of  it ;  because  while  the 
supply  as  a  whole  is  unequal  to  the  demand,  very  many  buyers  will  have  all 
they  need,  and  no  sale  will  be  made  until  a  consumer  is  found  who  has  not 
been  supplied.     One  condition  of  selling  to  the  best  trade  is  to  be  able  to 
supply  stuff  regularly.     The  producer  who  can  do  that,  having  sold  one  lot 
that  gives  satisfaction,  finds  that  this  sale  brings  him  a  standing  order. 

272.  When  to  Sell  Eggs. —  As  a  rule,  producers  realize  most  on  eggs 
by  selling  them  while  strictly  fresh.     Not  one  in  a  thousand  is  in  a  position  to 
preserve  eggs,  or  could  make  anything  by  doing  so  if  he  were.     The  profit 
on  preserved  eggs  is  for  those  able  to  handle  them  in  large  quantities,  by  the 
best   cold   storage   methods.     Perhaps  the  only  time  it  is  to  the   producer'* 
interest  to  hold  eggs  for  higher  prices,  is  when  prices  are  rapidly  going  up. 
Then  it  may  be  worth  while  to  hold  any  not  needed  for  a  regular  trade  for  a 
week  or  so  —  not  so  long  that  they  cannot  be  honestly  sold  as  fresh  eggs  —  to 
get  the  few  cents  per  dozen  he  would  gain  by  holding  them.     One  who  is- 
supplying  a  regular  trade,  especially  family  trade,  should  give  his  customers 
all  they  want  at  current  prices,  regardless  of  the  few  dollars  possible  profit  to- 
be  made  by  holding  them  back.    It  pays  to  favor  good  customers  a  little  when 
eggs  are  high.     There  comes  a  season,  every  year,  when  eggs  are  plenty  and 
cheap,  and  what  favors  are  going  come  from  the  customer. 

273.  How  Eggs  are  Sent  to   Market. —  Eggs  in  quantity  are  shipped 
mostly   in   thirty-dozen  cases,    (though  thirty-six  dozen  cases  are  sometime 
used).     Such  cases  are  put  up  for  sale  in  knock-down  bundles.     There  are 
several    styles.     The   cheaper   ones,  with  pasteboard  fillers,  are  most  used- 
For  small  lots  of  eggs,  half-cases,  or  cases  holding  ten  dozen  each,  are  often 
used.     For  the  family  trade,  which  takes  only  two  or  three  dozen  eggs  at  a 
time,  pasteboard  boxes  of  suitable  sizes  are  desirable.     Such    boxes  can    be 
purchased  of  paper  box  manufacturers,  or  of  dealers  in  poultrymen's  supplies. 
They  are  very  convenient  for  delivering  eggs  from  wagons ;  are  sometimes 
used  to  deliver  market  eggs  by  express,  though  the  proportion  of  transporta- 
tion to  value  on  such  small  packages  is  too  large  for  the  practice  to  become 
general.     However  sold,  eggs  should  be  clean,  and  assorted  according  to  size 
and  color.     One  should  never  attempt  to  work  off  the  small  eggs  with  the 
others.     If  there  are  more  than  can  be  used  at  home,  they  should  be  sold  for 
what   they  are — cull   eggs.     Everywhere  medium   to   large  eggs  sell  best. 
The  preferences  of  different  localities  for  eggs  of  different  colors,  were  given 
in  ^  101. 

274.  Shipping  Eggs  to  Commission  Merchants. —  There   are   many 


i88  POULTRY-CRAFT. 

poultry  keepers,  farmers  especially,  who  could  ship  one  or  more  cases  of  eggs 
weekly,  and  would  like  to  send  them  to  one  of  the  larger  markets,  and  get  a 
little  better  price  than  they  can  from  local  buyers,  if  they  could  sell  through 
a  reliable  commission  house.  Small  shippers,  who  cannot  make  personal 
investigation  of  the  standing  of  the  parties  to  whom  they  consign  goods,  are 
inclined  to  be  shy  of  commission  merchants ;  and  not  without  reason,  for  they 
and  their  neighbors  have  lost  again  and  again  through  commission  merchants 
of  the  here  today  and  there  tomorrow  variety,  who  offer  them  big  inducements 
to  ship  goods,  and  then  fail  to  make  returns  on  shipments  received ;  but 
there  are  plenty  of  reliable  commission  merchants,  and  in  all  the  large  cities 
there  are  firms  well  known  by  reputation  to  all  readers  of  poultry  papers,  to 
which  the  small  shipper  may  send  his  goods  with  full  confidence  that  he  will 
be  treated  fairly,  and  receive  every  cent  due  him.  Nearly  always  the  large 
houses  are.  glad  to  get  even  small  shipments  of  first  class  stock,  if  they  are 
sent  regularly — irregular  consignments  they  do  not  care  so  much  about.  In 
establishing  relations  with  such  houses,  the  best  method  is  to  send  a  sample 
shipment,  at  the  same  time  stating  the  quantity  that  could  be  shipped 
regularly.  The  best  time  to  begin  doing  business  with  these  firms  is  when 
eggs  are  not  very  plentiful.  Having  eggs  to  ship  when  eggs  are  scarce  is,  in 
the  eyes  of  the  commission  man,  one  of  the  best  recommendations  the  shipper 
can  have.  He  feels  from  the  first  that  this  man  is  to  be  depended  on  for 
regular  shipments ;  while  he  is  always  uncertain  about  those  -who  are  ready  to 
begin  when  eggs  are  plenty,  for  his  experience  has  been  that  in  a  very  short 
time  most  of  them  fail  him. 

275.  When  to  Sell  Poultry. —  In  producing  poultry  specially  for 
market,  one  ought  to  aim  to  have  as  much  as  possible  of  the  product  market- 
able when  prices  are  best,  and  to  have  everything  sold  before  prices  reach  a 
point  too  low  for  profit.  There  is  some  demand  for  poultry  throughout  the 
year ;  but  the  demand  for  chickens  is  so  much  lighter  between  August  and 
February  than  during  the  remainder  of  the  year,  that  the  producer's  profit, 
on  stuff  sold  in  the  fall  and  early  winter,  (except  on  extra  choice  stock),  is 
small. 

The  broiler  season  is  from  February  to  September,  prices  being  good 
throughout  that  period,  and  at  their  best  in  April  and  May.  Many  of  the 
broilers  shipped  in  September,  October,  and  November,  are  put  in  cold  stor- 
age and  held  until  the  beginning  of  the  next  season.  The  market  for  roasters 
is  most  active  throughout  December,  January,  and  February  ;  but  better  prices 
are  obtained  in  May,  June,  and  July,  when,  though  the  demand  is  more 
limited,  the  supply  is  much  more  limited.  Capons  are  in  demand  from 
December  to  May,  inclusive,  and  bring  best  prices  at  the  close  of  the  season. 

The  egg  farmer  marketing  his  cockerels  and  cull  pullets,  and  the  breeder 
of  pure-bred  poultry  disposing  of  his  culls,  can  hardly — if  their  chicks  are 
seasonably  hatched  for  their  purposes — get  the  top  prices  for  much  of  what 


POULTRT-CRAFT.  189 

poultry  they  have  to  market,  but  still  can  get  very  good  prices.  One  of  the 
worst  mistakes  in  marketing  poultry  is  made  by  those  who  hold  their  stuff 
until  cold  weather,  selling  it  about  the  holiday  season,  after  having  fed  it  sev- 
eral months  longer,  for  less  than  it  would  have  brought  in  July  and  August. 
That  practice  is  a  relic  of  a  by-gone  age  is  poultry  culture.  If  it  will  not  pay 
to  caponize  the  cockerels  they  should  be  sold  as  well  as  possible  while  the 
prices  are  still  fairly  good. 

276.  What  the  Market  Wants,  and   What  It  Does  Not  Want.— 

* '  Now  byjirst  class  stock  we  mean  well  fatted,  so  that  the  breast  bone  does 
not  stick  out  like  the  keel  to  a  boat;  yellow  meated,  well  dressed \  cleanly 
picked,  not  roughed  all  up  or  torn,  no  pin-feathers  left  in,  nor  the  legs  and 
feet  left  dirty.  Such  stock,  if  packed  to  present  a  neat  and  inviting  appear- 
ance, will  command  good  prices  nine  or  ten  months  in  the  year." 

4 '  We  call  particular  attention  to  the  fact  that  our  quotations  areforjirst 
quality,  quick  grown,  straight  breasted,  yellow  meated,  plump  stock. 
Stunted  chickens  several  months  (too)  old,  hump-backed,  white  meated,  and 
crooked  breasted,  are  not  wanted.  We  have  very  little  call  for  such  stock  at 
any  price  *  *  *  and  the  returns  made  for  it  will  be  discouraging  to  the 
shipper."  (W.  H.  Rudd,  Son  &  Co.'s  circular). 

277.  Sizes  and   Weights   Preferred. —  Broilers  should   weigh   from 
one  and  one-fourth  to  two  pounds  each,  the  lighter  weights  being  in  demand 
from  January  to  July,  the  heavier  for  the  remainder  of  the  year.     Broilers 
weighing  three-fourths  of  a  pound  each,  called  "  squab  broilers,"  have  for 
some  time  been  used  in  parts  of  Europe,  to  take  the  place  of  small  game,  and 
there  is  a  growing,  though  still  limited,  demand  for  them  in  this  country. 
They  are  in  demand  only  through  January,  February,  and  the  early  part  of 
March.     Roasters  range  from  five  pounds  per  pair  early  in  the  season  to  ten 
and  twelve  pounds  per  pair  in  the  fall  and  early  winter ;   quality  being  equal, 
the  largest  birds  bring  the  best  prices  per  pound. 

In  capons  birds  weighing  about  six  pounds  each  command  readiest  sale ; 
but  larger  birds,  nine,  ten  pounds  and  more,  bring  better  prices. 

Hens  weighing  four  to  five  pounds  each,  sell  better  than  either  larger  or 
smaller  stock. 

N.  B. —  The  above  weights  are  all  for  dressed  poultry. 

278.  Selling  Poultry  Through  Commission  Merchants.  —  The  large 
commission  houses  in  the  cities  furnish  shippers  full  instructions  for  dressing, 
packing,  and  shipping  poultry  to  their  market,  and  also  keep  large  shippers 
informed  of  the  fluctuations  in  prices  and  condition   of  the   market.     The 
requirements   for   different   markets   vary ;    some   cities    use    proportionately 
much  more  live  poultry  than  others ;    capons   bring   relatively  better  prices 
in  some  cities  than  in  others,  etc.     If  a  poultryman  had  located  with  reference 


190  PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 

to  a  particular  market,  he  would,  of  course,  have  produced  as  nearly  as  he 
could  to  meet  the  demand  in  that  market.  When  it  is  a  question  of  one 
already  located  finding  the  best  market,  he  needs  to  study  markets  thoroughly, 
and,  perhaps,  send  trial  shipments  to  several  different  places  before  he  decides 
where  to  sell.  Transportation  facilities  decide  the  shipping  question  for  many 
producers. 

In  shipping  to  commission  houses,  in  the  smaller  cities,  which  do  not 
furnish  instructions  to  shippers ;  and  to  provision  dealers ;  and  in  preparing 
poultry  for  special  family  or  hotel  trade,  the  local  requirements  of  the  leading 
markets  in  the  vicinity  should  be  observed.  It  is  especially  for  this  class  of 
shippers  that  complete  instructions  for  marketing  are  given  here. 


279.  Shipping   Live   Poultry. — Poultry  of  all  kinds  can  be  shipped 
alive  during  about  half  the  year,  from  April  to  October,  and,  for  short  distance 
shipments,  will  net  the  shipper  quite  as  much  as  if  dressed.     In  fact,  if  he  is 
inexpert  in  preparing  fowls  for  market,  good  live  fowls  would  bring  him  more 
than  he  would  get  for  the  same  fowls,  poorly  dressed.     Through  the  late  fall 
and  winter  months,  when  dressed  poultry  is  easily  kept,  live  fowls  are  not 
much  in  demand.     Commission  men  strictly  warn  their  shippers  against  send- 
ing live  fowls  at  winter  holiday  seasons,  as  at  such  times  they  have  to  be  sold 
on  the  market  for  whatever  they  will  bring,  and  may  not  realize  enough  to 
pay  expenses  of  transportation  and  sale. 

Live  fowls  are  shipped  mostly  by  express, 
in  slatted  coops,  each  holding  from  one  to 
two  dozen  grown  fowls,  and  of  chickens  a 
'larger  number,  according  to  size.  Over- 
crowding is  to  be  avoided,  both  because  of 
its  inhumanity,  and  for  economical  reasons ; 
it  is  not  right,  and  it  does  not  pay.  Crowded 
80.  Slatted  Coop  for  Shipping  Live  fowls  lose  in  weight,  and  also  in  quality  of 

Poultry  to  Market.  /,      i 

280.  Dressing  Poultry.  —  There  are  two  methods  of  dressing  poultry  : 
dry  picking,  and  scalding.     The  first  is  used  generally  in  the  east,  and  used 
everywhere  in  dressing  poultry  specially  for  the  best  trade   in   the   eastern 
markets ;  the  second  is  used  generally  throughout  the  west  and  south,  in  prepar- 
ing poultry  for  the  markets  of  those  sections.     A  few  dealers  in  some  of  the 
eastern  cities  will  not  receive  scalded  poultry  at  all.    In  some  places  it  is  hard  to 
sell,  but  in  most  places,  even  when  the  dry  picked  stock  is  given  preference, 
scalded  stock  of  good  quality  finds  ready  sale  at  satisfactory  prices.    In  western 
markets  scalded  stock  sells  best  for  the  home  trade  ;  yet  the  large  commission 
houses  prefer  dry  picked  stock ;  for,  as  a  very  large  part  of  the  poultry  sent  to 
market  must  be  shipped  east  to  find  consumers,  the  dry  picked  stock  can  be 
handled  to  best  advantage. 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT.  191 

281 .  Fowls  Must  Fast  Before  Being  Killed  — that  when  killed  the  crop 
and  intestines  may  be  empty.     No  food  should  be  given  for  at  least  twelve 
hours  previous  to  killing,  and  a  longer  fast  —  eighteen  to  twenty-four  hours  — 
is  desirable. 

282.  The  Killing  is  Done  by  Bleeding  in  the  mouth  or  neck  with  a 
sharp  knife.     (Knives  made  specially  for  poultry  killing  can    be    procured). 
It  used  to  be  the  practice  to  stun  the  bird  by  striking  on  the  head  or  back  with 
a   stick  before  bleeding.     This  was  discontinued  because  when  stunned  the 
birds  did  not  always  bleed  properly.     Bleeding  in  the  mouth  is  the  method 
most  favored,  because  the  cut  is  hidden,  and  thus  the  carcass  is  more  sightly. 
As  it  is  the  more  difficult  way,  one  who  is  uncertain  of  his  ability  to  do  it 
right,  should  bleed  in  the  neck  the  fowls  he  kills  to  sell  until  by  practice  on 
fowls  to  be  used  at  home,  he  has  become  expert  in  bleeding  in  the  mouth. 

The  method  of  making  the  cut,  is  thus  described  by  Boyer  :  — 

"The  bird's  legs  are  fastened  to  a  stout  cord  suspended  from  the  ceiling,  and  a  hogs- 
head or  barrel  is  placed  underneath  to  catch  the  blood  and  feathers.  Then  the  operator 
gets  in  front  of  the  bird,  placing  it  under  his  left  arm;  *  *  runs  the  knife  back  in  the 
mouth,  and  then  bringing  it  a  little  forward,  cuts  crosswise,  severing  an  artery.  The 
mouth,  during  the  operation,  is  held  open  with  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand.  Great  care 
is  taken  not  to  cut  too  much,  for  fear  of  the  bird  dying  before  the  feathers  are  all 
removed,  in  which  case  it  would  be  difficult  to  pick." 

All  operators  do  not  make  the  cut  in  the  same  way.      Cooper  says : 
"  Make  a  sharp  cut  lengthwise  in  the  mouth,  to  make  them  bleed ;  then  a  slot  upwards, 
which  penetrates  the  brain." 

McFetridge : 

"  Have  a  weight,  say  two  pounds,  with  hook  attached,  to  fasten  in  the  chicken's  lower 
beak  to  keep  the  head  steady,  and  over  the  barrel.  With  a  sharp  knife  make  a  cut 
crossing  at  the  base  of  the  brain  inside  the  mouth ;  then  turn  the  knife  blade  and  make 
a  deep  cut  in  the  roof  of  the  mouth  into  the  brain." 

Novices  can  take  their  choice  of  these  methods.  Each  will  settle  on  that 
which  comes  handiest  to  him. 

283.  Dry  Picking. —  In  dry  picking  the  feathers  are  removed  while  the 
bird  is  still  alive  (though  paralyzed) .     The  success  of  picking  by  this  method 
depends  on  removing  all  the  feathers  while  the  bird  is  bleeding.     In  dressing 
broilers,  the  pin-feathers  and  stubs  must  be  removed  afterwards  with  the  fingers 
and  a  small  knife.    When  the  bird  is  perfectly  clean,  the  blood  is  washed  from 
the  mouth  and  throat,  and  the  carcass  is  placed  in  cold  water,  to  which  a  little 
salt  has  been   added,   and  allowed  to  remain  there  for  several  hours,  until 
thoroughly  cooled.     It  is  then  taken  from  the  water  and  hung  up  to  dry  before 
being  packed. 

284.  Scalding. —  In  scalding  the  success  of   the  operation  depends   on 
having  the  water  at  the  right  temperature  —  as  near  boiling  as  it  can  be  —  and 
yet  not  boil, —  and  getting   all  the  feathers  to   be    removed  thoroughly  and 


i92  POULTRT-CRAFT. 

quickly  wet.  If  the  water  is  not  hot  enough  the  feathers  are  not  loosened,  and 
are  removed  with  difficulty ;  if  it  is  too  hot,  the  skin  is  partly  cooked,  and  the 
carcass  when  cold  is  blotched  and  discolored.  The  legs  are  dry  picked  before 
scalding.  The  bird,  held  by  the  legs  and  head,  that  the  comb  may  not  be 
discolored  and  the  eyes  shrunk  by  the  scalding  water  —  is  plunged  into  the 
water  several  times  (soused)  that  the  water  may  thoroughly  saturate  the 
feathers.  Then  the  feathers  are  removed  as  quickly  as  possible.  When 
clean,  the  carcass  is  plumped  by  being  plunged  for  a  few  seconds  in  very  hot 
water,  then,  immediately  in  cold  water.  In  warm  weather  it  should  be  cooled 
as  described  for  dry  picked  fowls,  in  water ;  in  cold  weather  it  may  be  hung 
up  to  cool. 

285.  A    Few    Important    Points. —  Whichever   method   is   used,   the 
appearance  of  the  carcass  is  improved  by  scalding  and  skinning  the  feet. 

If  the  skin  is  torn  in  picking,  it  should  be  sewed  up  with  common  white 
thread. 

The  general  rule  is  to  leave  heads  on  and  entrails  in,  but  sometimes  fowls 
shipped  in  cold  weather  are  headed  and  drawn  —  except  broilers,  which  are 
never  sent  to  market  drawn  and  headed. 

In  dressing  capons  the  feathers  are  left  on  the  neck,  tail,  wings,  and  thighs. 

The  object  of  cooling  is  to  get  the  animal  heat  out  of  the  body  as  quickly  as 
possible.  Putrefaction  begins  very  early  in  a  warm  carcass. 

286.  Packing  Poultry  for  Shipment. —  Poultry  should  be  packed  in 
boxes  or  barrels  lined  'with  paper,  but  should  not  be  wrapped  in  paper ;  nor 
should  straw  be  used  in  the  packing.     The  packing  should  be   done  in   such 
manner  that  the  carcasses  will  retain   their  shape,  and  will  not  shift  in  the 

package.  The  method  of  packing  fowls  is 
shown  in  Fig.  Si.  Some  packers  pack 
broilers  also  in  this  way ;  others  pack  them 
with  breasts  down  on  the  bottom  layer,  and 
up  on  the  top  layer.  Commission  men 
advise  shippers  to  use  boxes  in  preference  to 
barrels  for  shipping  poultry,  and  recommend 
using  neat  boxes  of  clean,  planed  lumber, 
uniform  in  size,  because  attractive  packages 
sell  better.  Boxes  should  be  made  of  five- 
eighths  inch  lumber,  and  made  deep  enough 
to  contain  two  layers  of  carcasses.  The  dimensions  of  the  boxes  vary  with 
the  sizes  of  the  fowls,  and  the  number  to  be  placed  in  each.  As  giving  a 
general  idea  of  the  proportions  to  be  observed  :  —  one  commission  house  rec- 
ommends using  boxes  8  x  16  x  22  inches ;  another,  boxes  10  x  20  x  30  inches. 
Not  more  than  one  kind  of  poultry  should  be  put  in  a  package.  The  kind  and 
weight  of  poultry  in  the  package,  and  full  shipping  directions,  should  be 
marked  on  it. 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT.  193 

287.  Packing  Iced  Poultry  in  Warm  Weather. — 

"Leave  heads  on  and  entrails  in.  Strong  sound  barrels  (sugar  barrels  preferred)  are 
best  for  ice  packing,  and  the  ice  should  be  washed  before  using.  Place  a  good  layer  of 
broken  ice  on  the  bottom  of  the  barrel,  then  a  layer  of  poultry,  commencing  in  the  middle 
and  packing  in  a  circle,  with  heads  down,  backs  up,  and  feet  toward  the  center;  then 
alternate  layers  of  ice  and  poultry,  filling  the  barrel  to  within  six  inches  of  the  top,  taking 
care  to  have  ice  between  the  poultry  and  the  staves  of  the  barrel ;  top  off  with  large  pieces 
of  ice,  and  cover  the  barrel  with  bagging,  (which  insures  its  being  kept  right  side  up), 
and  mark  with  brush  or  stencil.  If  shipped  from  any  considerable  distance,  put  an  extra 
large  piece  of  ice  on  cop,  and  if  properly  packed,  the  poultry  can  be  on  the  road  fifty 
hours  without  injury ;  and  if  heavily  iced  and  shipped  in  refrigerator  car,  can  safely  be 
four  or  five  days  in  transit ;  but  even  for  short  distances,  it  is  better  to  use  ice,  as  poultry, 
especially  if  not  drawn,  packed  without  it  in  warm  weather,  if  only  for  an  hour  or  two, 
will  turn  green  across  the  back,  and  become  almost  worthless."  (W.  H.  Rudd,  Son  & 
Co.'s  instructions  to  shippers). 

288.  Shipping  Dressed  Poultry  in  Cold  Weather.  — In  cold  weather 
a  great  deal  of  dressed  poultry  is  shipped  by  freight.     Shippers  are  usually 
advised  to  send  small  lots  going  a  considerable  distance  by  express,  especially 
if  transfers  are  to  be  made  en  route,  because  under  such  conditions  small  lots 
are  often  delayed,  and  arrive  in  poor  condition.     The  greater  cost  of  transpor- 
tation by  express  is  more  than  offset  by  the  better  returns  received  for  the 
shipment. 

289.  Hints  on  Selling  Poultry  and  Eggs  to  Family  Trade.  - 

Establishing  a  Route. — A  poultryman  producing  choice  goods,  can  get 
better  prices  by  selling  direct  to  the  best  family  trade  than  a  provision  dealer 
could  get  from  the  same  people  for  the  same  goods.  If  located  near  enough 
to  a  large  city  or  town  to  make  regular  deliveries,  weekly  or  bi-weekly,  one  will 
often  find  it  most  profitable  to  retail  his  own  produce.  A  good  route  is  not 
established  in  a  day.  Into  whatever  territory  one  goes,  he  finds  the  field 
already  partially  occupied.  He  has  to  work  for  what  trade  he  gets.  The 
quality  which  most  appeals  to  the  largest  number  of  consumers  is  cheapness. 
The  only  object  a  poultryman  can  have  in  selling  direct  to  consumers,  is  to 
get  the  highest  price  obtainable.  He  finds  some  customers  "  ready  made  ;  " 
but  while  building  up  trade,  his  work  is  largely  in  the  line  of  educating 
buyers'  tastes  to  the  point  where  the  cheapness  of  eggs  and  poultry  no  longer 
appeals  to  them.  This  process  takes  time.  The  work  of  building  up  a 
good  route  of  desirable  customers  whose  requirements  can  be  calculated  to  a 
nicety  in  advance,  who  buy  freely  and  pay  promptly,  is  not  often  completed 
in  less  than  two  or  three  years. 

Regular  Deliveries  cannot  be  profitably  made  oftener  than  twice  a  week 
when  poultry  products  alone  are  handled ;  nor  is  it  to  the  interest  of  the  pro- 
ducer to  make  them  less  often.  Eggs  a  week  old  are  too  old  for  this  class  of 
trade.  Tuesdays  and  Fridays  —  the  days  before  baking-days  —  are  the  best 
for  delivering  eggs, —  especially  if  one  has  more  eggs  than  his  established 
trade  takes,  and  desires  to  extend  his  route.  Most  people  —  when  they  want 


i94  PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 

poultry  —  want  it  on  Saturday  (for  Sunday),  but  not  nearly  all  want  it  every 
Saturday  —  and  occasionally  they  like  to  vary  things  by  using  poultry  in  the 
middle  of  the  week.  A  few  customers  will  take  poultry  regularly  twice  a 
week  the  year  round.  A  good  arrangement  is  to  deliver  eggs  on  Friday,  at 
the  same  time  taking  orders  for  poultry  for  both  Saturday  and  Tuesday 
delivery ;  make  a  special  delivery  of  poultry  on  Saturday ;  and  on  Tuesday 
a  regular  delivery,  covering  the  entire  route,  of  eggs  and  poultry. 

Eggs  may  be  packed  in  large  shipping  cases,  and  counted  out  as  wanted,  or 
put  up  in  small  pasteboard  boxes  made  specially  for  this  trade,  and  often  used 
also  by  grocers. 

Poultry  should  be  dressed  the  day  before  delivering.  When  cool  it  should 
be  weighed,  and  a  small  tag  with  weight  marked  on  it  attached  to  each  carcass. 
Each  order  may  be  separately  wrapped  in  paper,  or  a  covered  box  can  be  used 
for  carrying  poultry  in  the  wagon,  and  the  fowls  delivered  unwrapped.  (This 
is  the  better  way,  for  customers  generally  like  to  see  their  poultry  when 
delivered,  and  it  is  easier  to  keep  a  damp  cloth  in  the  box,  and  if  carcasses  are 
at  all  soiled  wipe  them  clean  as  taken  out  —  than  to  handle  them  done  up  in 
paper). 

Fowls  should  be  killed  only  on  order  : —  except  that  it  is  a  good  plan  to  have 
a  few  extra  for  possible  new  customers  or  for  increased  orders.  Orders  should 
be  for  so  many  fowls  of  definite  weights,  and  fowls  that  will  make  these 
weights  should  be  selected  for  killing.  A  fowl  shrinks,  according  to  size, 
about  one-fourth  to  one-half,  (or  a  little  over),  pound  in  dressing. 

Carcasses  should  be  cooled  as  thoroughly  as  if  for  shipment,  that  if  properly 
kept  the  meat  may  be  at  its  best  when  used.  It  is  coming  to  be  better  under- 
stood that  fresh  killed  poultry  lacks  the  flavor  and  delicacy  of  properly 
ripened  poultry,  and  it  is  to  the  producer's  interest  to  have  the  stuff  at  its 
best  when  eaten. 

All  goods  should  be  sold  for  cash  on  delivery,  or  cash  on  presentation  of 
monthly  bills.  A  poultryman  cannot  afford  to  do  a  credit  business. 

Selling  the  Inferior  Stock.  —  The  poultry  product  is  never  entirely 
uniform  in  quality ;  there  is  always  some  that  cannot  be  sold  to  the  best  trade. 
The  producer  should  aim  to  get  proportionately  as  good  a  price  for  his  poorer 
stock  as  for  his  good  stock.  He  cannot  afford  to  let  it  go  for  less  than  the 
best  price  obtainable.  Paradoxical  as  the  statement  may  seem,  it  is  none  the 
less  true  that,  while  a  first  class  family  trade  must  be  built  up  by  selling  to 
that  trade  only  good  stock,  no  small  part  of  the  poultryman's  profit  depends 
on  his  success  in  selling  his  poorer  stock.  It  is  often  said  that  anyone  at  all 
can  sell  good  goods,  but  selling  poor  goods  tests  a  salesman. 

To  dispose  of  all  his  product  to  best  advantage,  the  producer,  while  cater- 
ing specially  to  the  best  trade,  must  establish  a  sort  of  complementary  trade 
that  will  take  his  inferior  stock.  This  trade,  by  itself,  would  not  be  desirable 
or  profitable,  but  as  accessory  to  the  other,  it  is  worth  a  great  many  dollars 
in  the  course  of  a  year.  It  does  not  injure  the  better  trade  in  the  least  as 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT.  195 

long  as  all  poultry  is  sold  for  exactly  what  it  is,  and  every  transaction  is  open 
and  above  board.  If  one  tries  to  work  off  poor  stock  at  the  price  of  good, 
or  sells  the  same  grade  of  stock  at  several  prices  —  according  to  what  buyers 
are  willing  to  pay,  trouble  is  sure  to  come  of  it. 


SELLING  BREEDING  STOCK  AND  EGGS  FOR  HATCHING. 

290.  Advertising  is  the  first  step  toward  making  sales  of  eggs  or  stock 
of  pure  bred  poultry.  Without  advertising,  only  a  few  neighborhood  sales 
can  be  made.  Advertising  in  local  newspapers  does  not  often  pay.  The 
consensus  'of  opinion  among  successful  advertisers  of  poultry,  is  that  adver- 
tising in  other  than  poultry  papers  does  not  pay,  though  sometimes  advertise- 
ments in  agricultural  papers  with  good  poultry  departments,  bring  good 
returns.* 

HOTV  Much  to  Spend  in  Advertising — is  a  perplexing  question.  It  is 
sometimes  said  that  an  advertiser  ought  to  be  satisfied  for  some  time  if  his 
sales  from  advertising  are  paying  his  advertising  bills.  Not  many  people, 
however,  can  long  afford  to  pay  out  good  money  for  advertising  which  does 
not  result  more  substantially  than  that.  If  advertising  is  not  bringing  in  sub- 
stantial returns,  the  advertiser  who  is  in  the  business  for  a  living  must  look 
for  the  reason,  and  find  a  remedy ;  for  there  is  no  way  in  which  money  can 
be  thrown  away  faster,  and  with  less  hope  of  its  ever  coming  back  again,  than 
in  advertising  wrong. 

The  first  thing  for  a  man  to  do  when  placing  his  advertising  on  a  business 
basis,  is  to  decide  how  much  he  can  afford  to  spend  for  advertising.  If  he 
has  income  from  other  sources,  it  might  pay  him  to  spend  for  advertising  in 
the  first  season  25%,  or  even  50%,  of  what  he  estimates  his  produce  would 
bring  if  fairly  well  sold  ;  f  but  if  he  has  no  income  other  than  from  his  poultry, 
he  cannot  afford  to  plan  for  an  expenditure  for  advertising  to  exceed  10%  of 
his  most  judicious  estimate  of  sales  resulting  from  advertising.  The  amount 
thus  appropriated  may  seem  small ;  it  is  the  more  needful  that  it  be  invested 
wisely.  Slow  and  sure  is  as  good  a  rule  now  as  it  was  when  he  began  to 
build,  and  to  buy  and  breed  stock. 

The  next  step  is  to  find  out  what  poultry  papers  have  the  best  circulation 

*  NOTE. —  Some  very  notable  exceptions  to  the  statement  that  general  advertising  does 
not  pay  poultrymen,  are  worthy  of  mention.  There  are  a  few  poultrymen  who  are  both 
extensive  breeders  of  and  dealers  in  poultry  at  popular  prices,  and  these  use  the  leading 
magazines,  and  make  it  pay. 

t  NOTE. —  Even  conservative  methods  of  "  counting  chickens  before  they  are  hatched," 
are  apt  to  result  in  excessive  estimates.  An  expenditure  for  advertising  of  50  per  cent  of 
estimated  possible  sales,  would  be  likely  to  turn  out  100  per  cent  of  the  actual  sales ;  but 
if  the  advertising  appropriation  had  been  made  on  the  basis  of  100  per  cent  of  estimated 
receipts,  the  poultryman  would  come  out  away  behind. 


196  POULTRT-CRAFT. 

in  the  territory  in  which  one  is  located.  It  makes  no  difference  to  the  adver- 
tiser where  the  paper  is  published.  The  circulation  is  what  interests  him, 
and  circulation  in  territory  adjacent  to  him  is  what  he  must  value,  for  he 
cannot  at  first  make  more  than  an  occasional  sale  of  birds  or  eggs  to  be 
shipped  to  a  distance. 

If  it  is  decided  to  use  a  single  paper,  the  wisest  move  at  this  stage  is  to 
write  the  business  manager  of  the  paper,  stating  the  amount  available  for 
advertising,  and  asking  advice  in  placing  the  sum  most  advantageously. 
Managers  of  papers  of  standing  and  influence  willingly  give  sound  advice  to 
advertisers  regarding  the  kind  of  advertisement  to  be  used,  relative  amounts 
of  space  to  be  used  at  different  seasons  of  the  year,  etc. ;  and  the  new 
advertiser  is  more  likely  to  be  satisfied  in  the  end  if  he  follows  the  suggestions 
given,  than  if  he  follows  his  own  ideas.  If  advertising  is  to  be  placed  in 
several  papers,  the  same  course  should  be  taken  for  each  as  has  been  outlined 
for  one. 

If  having  taken  the  advice  given  him,  the  advertiser  does  not  get  the  returns 
he  might  reasonably  expect,  he  ought  not  to  find  fault  with  the  paper  as  an 
advertising  medium,  and  change  at  once.  The  mere  insertion  of  an  advertise- 
ment in  a  good  medium  does  not  guarantee  sales.  There  is  art  in  advertising. 
An  advertisement  must  attract  attention.  It  is  not  enough  to  have  for  sale  an 
article  buyers  want ;  one  must  tell  them  so  in  language  which  attracts  favorable 
notice,  without  in  any  way  conveying  a  wrong  impression  of  either  the  breeder 
or  his  stock.  Often  advertisers  complain  that  their  advertisements  bring 
plenty  of  inquiries,  but  they  make  no  sales.  In  that  case  the  fault  is  usually 
with  the  advertiser ;  either  he  has  so  worded  an  advertisement  that  it  attracts 
a  class  of  buyers  whose  orders  he  cannot  fill,  or  he  is  unable  to  sell  stock  by 
correspondence.  This  last  is  the  trouble  with  a  great  many  who  are  unsuc- 
cessful advertisers.  Some  people  can  write  letters  that  will  drive  custom 
away  as  fast  as  "  ads."  in  a  dozen  papers  bring  it  to  them. 

In  general,  a  well  worded,  well  placed  advertisement  in  any  poultry  paper 
having  a  good  circulation  in  his  section,  will  bring  a  breeder  numerous  letters 
of  inquiry ;  and,  though  he  cannnot  expect  every  inquiry  to  result  in  a  sale,  if 
he  is  prompt  in  attending  to  correspondence,  writes  a  fair  business  letter,  and 
has  the  stock  to  justify  his  advertising,  he  will  get  his  share  of  orders.  If 
results  are  unsatisfactory,  he  cannot  justly  find  fault  with  the  advertising 
medium  used,  unless  he  finds  that  its  circulation  has  been  misrepresented  to 
him,  or  his  advertisement  has  not  been  well  placed. 

When  more  than  one  paper  is  used,  advertisements  should  be  "  keyed,"  a 
little  different  address  given  in  the  advertisement  in  each  paper. 

In  addition  to  and  in  connection  with  his  advertising  in  the  poultry  papers, 
a  breeder  of  Standard  stock  should  aim  to  exhibit  at  at  least  one  poultry  show 
each  year.  Advertising  premiums  won  is  a  drawing  card.  Even  though  at 
first  one  may  miss  the  premiums,  as  an  exhibitor  and  regular  attendant  at 
shows,  he  has  a  better  standing  as  a  breeder  than  he  would  otherwise  have. 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT.  197 

291.  The  Breeder's  Stationery  and  Correspondence. — 

Circulars.  —  It  is  customary  for  breeders  to  issue  circulars,  describing  their 
stock  more  fully  than  is  possible  in  an  advertisement  or  convenient  in  a  letter, 
giving  directions  for  ordering,  prices,  stating  terms,  etc.  Such  a  circular  is 
almost  a  necessity.  A  few  well  known  breeders  who  sell  stock  of  exceptional 
quality  do  not  issue  circulars,  because  sales  of  stock  of  that  class  cannot  be 
made  on  general  descriptions  and  general  statements  of  prices.  The  breeder 
of  ordinary  stock  who  has  any  considerable  amount  of  it  to  sell,  and  can  fully 
inform  possible  purchasers  of  its  merits  without  issuing  a  circular,  is  the 
exception  —  the  thousandth  man.  The  expense  of  printing  from  three  to  five 
hundred  circulars  (which  will  be  enough  for  the  small  breeder  to  begin  with), 
is  small.  If  there  is  not  a  first  class  job  printing  office  in  the  vicinity,  it  is 
better  to  send  the  work  to  one  of  the  offices  advertising  poultrymen's  printing 
as  a  specialty. 

Correspondence  Paper  and  Envelopes  should  be  of  good  quality,  with  neat 
letter  heads  and  requests  to  return.  Some  breeders  print  their  circulars  on  the 
backs  of  their  letter  paper, — or,  write  letters  on  the  backs  of  their  circulars. 
This  does  not  look  well,  nor  does  it  create  a  good  impression.  It  is  never 
possible  to  trace  the  sales  due  to  neat  stationery,  but  one  can  easily  judge 
something  of  its  influence  by  comparing  the  impressions  made  on  himself  by 
the  receipt  of  letters  and  circulars  of  varying  neatness  and  quality.  The  use 
of  poor,  unattractive  stationery  is  the  worst  recommendation  in  the  world  for  a 
poultryman  whose  work  is  supposed  to  demand  in  large  measure  the  possession 
of  genuine  good  taste. 

Circulars  should  be  sent  free  to  all  applicants.  Each  year  the  custom  of 
asking  stamps  for  circulars  falls  more  into  disuse.  It  is  not  bad  policy  for  a 
new  advertiser  to  enclose  with  each  circular  sent  in  response  to  an  application, 
a  brief  and  courteous  letter  soliciting  patronage. 

All  correspondents  should  be  promptly  and  courteously  answered;  postal 
cards  treated  as  respectfully  as  sealed  letters. 

292.  Terms  of  Sales  —  should  be,  cash  with  the  order  for  mail  trade ; 
cash  on  delivery  for  local  trade.     Exceptions  should  be  made  only  in  case  of 
a  customer  well  known  to  the  breeder,  and  of  whose  ability  and  willingness 
to  pay  he  is  sure.     A  poultryman  cannot  afford  to  do  a  credit  business.     His 
business  is  carried  on  under  such  conditions  that  the  common  evils  of  the 
credit  system  are  many  times  increased,  and  general  credit  giving  would  break 
him  in  a  very  short  time.     A  beginner  whose  stock  is  selling  slowly  is  often 
tempted  to  give  credit  rather  than  lose  a  sale.     If  he  does  so,  he  is  likely  to 
regret  it.     If  he  cannot  carry  the  stock  he  had  better  sell  it  as  market  poultry. 
Shipping  poultry  and  eggs  C.  O.  D.,  is  quite  as  risky  as  crediting,  for  a 
customer  cannot  be  compelled  to  take  the  goods,  and  if  he  refuses  the  shipper 
must  stand  transportation  charges  both  ways,  or  lose  the  stock. 

293.  Selling  Stock.  —  Parts  of  the  observations  on  buying  stock  and  on 
prices  of  eggs  and  stock,  in  ^[110,  113 —  114,  are  so  easily  adapted  to  selling, 


198  POULTRT-CRAFT. 

that  their  substance  need  not  be  repeated  here.  Those  paragraphs  should  be 
re-read  in  connection  with  the  following  remarks,  which  are  more  specially 
pertinent  to  the  new  breeder  as  a  seller  of  stock. 

The  beginner,  generally,  is  a  poor  judge  of  stock — though  generally  he  does 
not  thus  think  of  himself.  He  can  make  broad  distinctions  between  his  best 
and  his  worst,  but  when  it  comes  to  accurately  placing  values  on  his  mediocre 
stock,  he  is  most  apt  to  make  mistakes,  and  in  consequence  make  some  bad 
blunders  in  filling  orders.  Mistakes  due  to  ignorance  are  often  aggravated  by 
one's  carelessness  —  pricing  or  shipping  stock  without  carefully  examining  it; 
sometimes  catching  birds  in  the  dark,  and  cooping  them  almost  without 
looking  at  them,  —  filling  orders  by  the  catch-as-catch-can  method.  If  one  is 
frank  and  straightforward  with  his  customer,  such  blunders  are  easily  rectified 
without  injury  to  either  party,  and  without  ill-feeling  on  either  side. 

Some  breeders  prefer  to  have  their  stock  scored,  and  sell  by  the  score.  It 
is  questionable  whether  there  is  any  real  advantage  in  this.  Private  scoring  is 
so  open  to  abuses  that  private  scores  are  generally  discredited.  The  full 
responsibility  of  filling  orders  educates  a  seller  in  values  more  quickly  than 
anything  else. 

One  of  the  most  serious  mistakes  of  beginners  is  selling  their  best  birds. 
A  breeder  —  no  matter  how  low  down  in  the  ranks  —  ought  never  to  sell  his 
best  birds,  unless  he  is  sure  he  can  replace  as  many  as  he  needs  of  them  for 
less  money  than  these  bring  him.  If  he  does  not  keep  a  little  in  advance  of 
his  customers,  he  cannot  long  hold  their  trade. 

Nearly  all  new  breeders  carry  too  many  low  class  males  through  the 
winter.  Males  of  the  quality  sold  for  crossing  or  grading  rarely  bring  over 
$1.50  to  $2  each.  At  such  prices  it  does  not  pay  to  carry  them  until  the 
beginning  of  the  breeding  season,  when  they  will  be  in  demand.  Some  old 
breeders  say  that  it  does  not  pay  to  winter  a  male  that  cannot  be  sold  in  the 
spring  for  $5.  The  new  breeder  cannot  place  his  limit  quite  as  high  as  that, 
for  he  cannot  at  any  time  get  the  prices  the  older  breeders  get ;  but  if  he  will 
make  it  a  rule  to  keep  over  no  male  which  he  cannot  sell  for  $2.50  or  $3, 
one  of  the  worst  leaks  in  his  business  will  be  stopped.  Pullets  of  like  inferior 
quality  can  be  made  to  pay  their  way. 

An  unknown  breeder  cannot  expect  to  get  the  prices  a  breeder  of  wide 
reputation  gets  for  stock  of  the  same  quality,  as  far  as  appearances  show. 
At  the  same  time,  he  ought  not  to  make  the  mistake  of  cheapening  his  stock 
and  himself  by  offering  goods  for  less  than  the  ordinary  small  breeder 
gets  for  similar  stock.  At  first  glance  it  would  appear  that  if  one  cannot 
dispose  of  most  of  his  eggs  for  hatching  at  $2  or  $1.50  per  sitting,  it  is  better 
to  sell  for  75  cents  or  even  50  cents,  than  to  eat  them ;  or  if  he  cannot  get  $3 
or  $2  for  birds  well  worth  those  prices,  it  is  better  to  let  them  go  at  $i  for 
breeding,  than  at  50  cents  as  poultry.  Every  dime  saved  this  way  is  a  dollar 
lost  in  future  sales.  The  beginner  who  has  good  stock  should  keep  his  prices 
at  a  fair  medium. 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 


199 


Orders    should    be    promptly   acknowledged,    and    also   promptly   filled. 

Every  customer  should  be  given  good  value  for  his  money.  It  is  better  to 
err  a  little  on  the  side  of  good  measure  than  to  give  scant  value ;  but,  even  in 
giving  good  measure,  it  is  best  not  to  go  too  far  —  you  cannot  afford  it. 

In  quoting  prices  stock  should  be  honestly  described,  and  faults  as  well  as 
excellencies  mentioned :  they  are  equally  important  to  the  breeder,  and  it  is 
only  fair  to  the  customer  who  cannot  personally  examine  birds  before  order- 
ing. The  breeder  who  does  this,  competing  with  those  who  do  not  accurately 
describe  their  stock,  is  sure  to  lose  some  sales.  It  is  much  better  to  have  a 
correspondent  buy  of  the  other  fellow  and  wish  he  had  bought  of  you,  than 
buy  of  you  and  wish  he  had  placed  his  order  elsewhere. 

In  selling  stock  on  approval,  the  usual  understanding  is  that  it  may  be 
returned  if  not  as  represented ;  that  is,  if  it  does  not  answer  the  description 
given,  and  the  buyer  can  faily  claim  he  has  not  been  sent  what  he  ordered. 
Sometimes  the  special  arrangement  is  that  if  the  stock  does  not  suit  the 
purchaser  it  may  be  returned. 

294.  Shipping  High  Class  Fowls.  —  Breeding  and  exhibition  fowls  are 
shipped  by  express  in  light  coops  made  of  wood,  or  of  wood  and  canvas. 


Pig.    82.     Box  Coop  for  Shipping  Thoroughbred 
Fowls. 


Pig.  83.     Coop  for  Shipping  Fowls  to  Exhibi- 
tion.     Same  Coop  with  ordinary  Slat  Top  is  often 
used  for  Shipping  Fowls  to  Customers. 
(By  courtesy  of  F.  L.  Sewell). 


If  properly  cooped,  and  provided  with  food  and  a  cup  for  water,  they  can  be 
safely  shipped  any  distance.  Expressmen  feed  and  water  fancy  fowls  in 
transit.  Some  of  the  companies  are  very  strict  in  their  requirements  in  this 
matter,  obliging  their  employees  to  mark  the  fact  and  time  of  each  feeding  on 
the  shipping  bill.  For  fowls  in  all  wood  coops,  and  in  coops  of  wood  and 
canvas,  so  constructed  that  were  the  canvas  removed  the  fowls  would  still  be 
securely  confined,  the  express  rate  is  the  regular  merchandise  rate,  known  as 
the  "  first  class"  rate.  For  fowls  in  canvas  covered  coops,  so  constructed 
that  the  canvas  is  required  to  confine  them,  the  express  rate  is  "  double  first 
class,"  just  twice  as  much  as  in  the  other  style  of  coop.  Figs.  82 — 83  show 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 

styles  of  coops  commonly  used.  All  wood  coops  can  be  bought  in  knock 
down  bundles,  ready  to  nail  together.  In  making  the  slat  coops  with  canvas 
lining  lath,  empty  grocery  boxes  of  light  wood  and  cheap  muslin  can  be  used, 
and  the  cash  cost  of  a  coop  for  four  or  five  fowls  need  not  exceed  fifteen  cents. 
If  many  coops  are  needed,  it  is  better  to  buy  new  lumber,  which  can  easily  be 
cut  to  the  dimensions  required,  than  to  take  the  time  to  work  up  scrappy  stuff. 

A  little  chopped  straw  or  hay,  or  some  chaff,  should  be  placed  in  the  bottom 
of  the  coop.  Before  the  fowls  are  placed  in  it  their  legs  should  be  cleaned, 
and  combs,  wattles,  and  faces  wiped  clean  of  dust  and  soot,  and  rubbed  with 
vaseline,  which  not  only  brings  out  the  color  of  the  comb,  but  protects  the 
parts  treated  from  the  cold,  and  prevents  swelling  and  purring  of  the  face 
should  the  birds  be  exposed  to  a  draft.  The  breeder  should  be  very  particular 
that  no  lousy  bird  is  shipped  from  his  yards,  and  if  lice  have  been  giving  him 
trouble,  should  coop  the  birds — in  exhibition  coops  —  for  some  days  before 
shipping,  and  treat  for  lice.  The  top  of  the  coop,  whether  in  one  piece  or 
in  several,  should  be  so  securely  nailed  that  the  coop  can  be  lifted  by  any  one 
slat.  Coops  are  not  supposed  to  be  lifted  that  way,  but  the  precaution  is  a 
wise  one,  none  the  less. 

A  bag  containing  sufficient  grain  for  the  fowls  for  the  journey,  should  be 
tied  to  the  coop  in  such  a  way  that  the  grain  can  be  easily  got  at.  A  few 
pieces  of  bone  with  some  meat  adhering  to  them,  and  a  large  piece  of  mangel 
wurzel  put  in  the  coop  before  nailing  the  slats  down,  help  to  keep  the  fowls 
contented.  The  drinking  cup  should  be  fastened  in  one  corner,  high  enough 
up  to  prevent  it  being  filled  with  dirt  from  the  bottom  of  the  coop,  and  in  such 
position  that  water  can  be  poured  into  it  through  the  space  between  the  slat 
and  the  side  of  the  coop.  The  address  of  the  consignee,  very  plainly  written 
on  a  tag,  should  be  affixed  to  the  coop,  and  unless  the  tag  bears  the  shipper's 
name  he  should  tack  one  of  his  cards  conspicuously  on  the  coop. 

The  purchaser  should  be  notified  of  the  shipment  of  his  birds  —  time  of 
leaving,  and  by  what  express  —  even  though  previously  informed  of  the  date 
when  shipment  would  be  made. 

If  the  shipper  desires  the  coop  returned  to  him  he  should  so  state  when 
sending  notice  of  shipment,  and  should  enclose  ten  cents  for  return  charges, 
which  must  be  prepaid  on  "  empties." 

295.  Selling  Eggs  for  Hatching  —  is,  in  general,  considered  less 
satisfactory  to  both  buyer  and  seller  than  dealings  in  fowls.  Still,  while 
there  are  a  few  who  do  not  sell  eggs  for  hatching,  the  vast  majority  do  sell 
them,  either  because  it  is  the  general  custom,  or  because  they  make  it  pay, 
and  think  that  on  the  whole  the  advantages  of  that  method  of  selling  pure 
bred  stock  more  than  compensate  for  its  drawbacks. 

Advertisements  of  eggs  for  hatching  should  be  started  in  January  — 
certainly  not  later  than  February.  Few  high  priced  eggs  are  shipped 


POULTRT-CRAFT.  201 

while  there  is  danger  of  their  being  chilled  in  transit,  but  intending  buyers 
begin  making  inquiries  early,  and  many  orders  are  placed  in  January  and 
February  for  March  and  April  delivery. 

As  with  fowls,  the  price  should  not  be  put  too  low.  If  the  stock  is  of 
quality  to  justify  the  price,  a  breeder  is  quite  likely  to  sell  as  many  eggs  at 
$2  as  at  a  lower  price,  and  sell  to  a  better  class  of  customers,  better  informed 
of  the  ups  and  downs  of  buying  eggs  for  hatching,  and  consequently  more 
reasonable  and  more  agreeable  to  deal  with.  Nearly  all  breeders  make  reduc- 
tions in  prices  for  several  sittings  ordered  at  one  time.  This  one  can  well 
afford  to  do,  for  the  work  of  selling  and  handling  one  sitting  costs  quite  as 
much  as  for  two  or  three. 

It  is  quite  a  common  practice  to  reduce  the  price  of  eggs  for  hatching  late 
in  the  season.  Those  who  do  this  think  the  eggs,  while  worth  less  than 
earlier  in  the  season,  are  still  well  worth  the  price  asked  for  them,  and  that 
the  reduction  extends  their  trade  and  the  general  interest  in  pure  bred  poultry 
by  giving  an  opportunity  to  those  least  able  to  buy  to  start  with  good  stock. 
Those  who  hold  to  one  uniform  price  throughout  the  season,  think  it,  in  the 
long  run,  to  their  own  best  interest,  and  for  the  good  of  the  varieties  they 
breed,  not  to  encourage  people  to  hatch  late  chicks  from  stock  more  or  less 
debilitated  by  a  season's  producing. 

The  practice  in  regard  to  guaranteeing  hatches,  is  divided.  The  breeder's 
usual  guaranty  is  that  the  eggs  shipped  are  true  to  name,  from  the  stock 
described  in  his  advertisements  and  circular,  fresh,  and  running  high  in 
fertility ;  — just  such  eggs  as  he  sets  to  hatch  his  own  stock  ;  carefully  packed 
and  delivered  to  the  express  company  in  good  condition.  Not  many  breeders 
guarantee  more  than  this.  All  honest  breeders,  however,  replace  eggs  if  their 
own  hatches  and  general  reports  of  customers  indicate  that  their  stock  is  not 
breeding  right.  Some  guarantee  six,  seven,  nine,  or  ten  chicks  from  each 
sitting  of  eggs ;  some  replace  eggs  that  gave  poor  hatches  at  half-price,  and 
duplicate  very  poor  hatches  and  total  failures  free.  If  a  breeder  has  fulfilled 
the  conditions  of  such  a  guaranty  as  is  outlined  above,  he  is  under  no  obliga- 
tion to  do  more,  for  a  good  hatch  depends  on  too  many  contingencies  altogether 
beyond  his  control 

296.  Packing  and  Shipping  Eggs  for  Hatching.  —  Eggs  are  shipped 
by  express,  always.  Small  lots  of  one,  two,  or  three  sittings,  are  packed  in 
baskets  specially  rnade  in  various  sizes  for  this  purpose,  or  in  common  splint 
baskets,  or  in  fruit  (grape)  baskets.  Often  a  shipper  can  get  other  baskets 
more  conveniently  and  at  less  cost  than  the  special  egg  baskets,  and  many 
prefer  them,  irrespective  of  cost.  With  the  regular  egg  baskets,  pasteboard 
boxes  having  compartments  for  each  egg  are  used.  In  packing,  a  little  chaff", 
or  fine  excelsior  is  first  put  in  the  bottom  of  each  compartment,  then  the  eggs 
are  put  in,  small  end  down ;  the  spaces  around  them  filled  up  with  chaff,  and 
the  cover  of  the  box  securely  tied.  Excelsior  is  packed  under,  around,  and 


202  PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 

over  those  boxes  when  placed  in  the  baskets ;  then  the  basket  covers  are  very 
securely  tied  with  strong  twine.  The  covers  furnished  with  the  baskets  have 
printed  on  them  the  notice,  "  EGGS  FOR  HATCHING  —  Handle  with  care." 
The  consignee's  name  and  address,  plainly  written,  should  be  placed  on  a  tag 
attached  to  the  handle  of  the  basket. 

In  using  the  ordinary  oblong,  flat  bottomed,  splint  baskets,  a  mat  of  excelsior 
from  one  to  two  inches  thick,  is  spread  evenly  in  the  bottom  of  the  basket ; 
similar  mats  are  placed  around  the  sides ;  then  the  eggs,  each  carefully 
wrapped  in  newspaper,  or  in  a  wisp  of  excelsior,  are  packed  in  close,  and  the 
interstices  filled  with  excelsior.  If  more  than  one  layer  of  eggs  is  put  in  a 
basket,  a  thin  mat  of  excelsior  should  be  placed  between  layers.  When  all 
the  eggs  are  in,  cover  them  with  excelsior  to  the  thickness  of  several  inches ; 
sew  on  a  cover  of  muslin,  drawing  it  tight  over  the  excelsior,  and  sewing  to 
the  edges  of  the  basket.  Paste  on  this  cover  a  printed  label  with  description 
of  contents,  and  warning  against  rough  handling,  address  and  tag,  as  above. 

To  pack  in  grape  baskets,  use  either  excelsior,  chaff",  or  cut  hay ;  wrap  eggs 
in  paper  or  excelsior,  and  pack  as  firmly  as  possible  without  crowding  too 
much.  (The  secret  of  packing  eggs  to  go  safely,  is  to  have  the  package  firm 
enough  to  prevent  shifting,  yet  elastic  enough  to  protect  the  eggs  from  jolts  and 
jarring).  The  bottom,  sides,  and  cover  of  a  grape  basket  being  much 
stronger  than  of  the  common  splint  basket,  less  packing  material  is  needed 
between  the  eggs  and  the  sides  of  the  basket.  Tie  the  cover  on  strongly,  and 
label  and  tag  as  directed  above.  If  a  breeder  will  save  his  empty  fruit  baskets 
each  year,  and  ask  a  few  of  his  neighbors  to  do  the  same,  he  can  get  baskets 
for  several  hundred  sittings  of  eggs  at  no  cost  beyond  the  trouble  of  collecting 
and  storing  them. 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT.  203 


CHAPTER    XIII. 


Exhibiting  Poultry. 

297.  The  Business  Breeder  Should  Be  an  Exhibitor.  —  The  educa- 
tional  and   advertising   advantages   which  a  breeder  may  get  from   poultry 
shows,  have  been  mentioned  more  than  once  in  preceding  pages.     There  is 
another  and  a  stronger  reason  why  every  business  breeder  of  thoroughbred 
fowls  ought  to  do  all  that  he  ca,n  do  in  reason  to  make  a  poultry  show  in  his 
section  a  success  and  a  permanent  thing.     A  live  poultry  show  extends  the 
interest  in  poultry  as  few  other  agencies  do  —  increasing  the  demand  for  the 
poultryman's    goods,  and  thus  affording  a  better  market  for  what  he  has  to 
sell.     In  this  way  the  show  benefits  him,  though  he  shows  and  fails  to  win, 
and  even  though  he  does  not  show  at  all.     (If  he  never  goes  near  the  show, 
he  still  is  indirectly  benefited  by  it). 

The  breeders'  duty  on  this  point  is,  when  the  matter  is  looked  at  in  the  right 
light,  clear.  Poultry  associations  are  not  money  making  affairs.  Those  who 
promote  them  often  have  to  go  down  in  their  own  pockets  to  pay  deficits.  It 
does  not  often  happen  that  there  is  a  balance  on  hand  when  the  bills  are  paid. 
With  the  simple  fancier,  maintaining  a  local  poultry  show  is  only  a  matter  of 
pride;  with  the  breeder  it  is  a  matter  of  profit  as  well.  While  he  ought  not 
to  put  himself  in  a  position  where  the  support  of  a  show  would  fall  too  heavily 
on  him,  he  is  much  at  fault  if  he  allows  the  benefits,  direct  and  indirect,  which 
a  live  show  gives  him,  to  be  withdrawn  or  reduced  for  lack  of  his  support. 
Where  the  interest  in  poultry  is  already  strong,  the  support  of  one  breeder 
does  not  often  matter  greatly ;  but  in  the  many  sections  where  the  pure  bred 
poultry  industry  is  still  in  its  infancy,  the  support  of  one  breeder  may  mean 
a  great  deal  to  a  show. 

A  fancier  to  whom  poultry  breeding  is  recreation,  the  competition  of  the 
show  room  u  sport,"  is  not  in  any  way  under  obligation  to  support  shows 
unless  he  chooses  to  make  such  obligation  his.  The  breeder,  as  a  business 
man,  owes  it  to  himself,  to  those  dependent  on  him,  to  his  community, —  to 
all  interested  in  his  success  or  affected  by  his  failure, —  to  use  every  means  in 
his  power  to  make  the  business  successful.  Of  aids  to  the  breeders'  success, 
there  are  not  many  more  efficient  than  a  live  nearby  poultry  show. 

298.  General  Care  of  Exhibition  Stock.  —  The  general  preparation  of 
birds  bred  specially  for  exhibition,  begins  from  the  time  when  they  leave  the 
shell.     The  chicks  are  given  every  opportunity  to  make  the  best  development 
of  which  they  are  capable.     Nothing  that  would  hurt  them  is  permitted; 


204  pO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 

nothing  which  will  help  them  neglected.  They  are  not  handled  in  a 
specifically  different  way  from  other  good  stock,  well  cared  for.  It  is 
only  that  the  breeder  uses  every  means  to  assure  the  best  development,  and 
does  not  resort  to  the  narrow  balancing  of  cost  and  profit  which  must  be 
followed  in  rearing  lower  priced  poultry.  That  one  way  which  is  better  than 
others,  he  follows  regardless  of  trouble ;  that  food  which  gives  best  results,  he 
uses  regardless  of  cost. 

299.  Special  Selection  of  Specimens  for  a  Particular  Show —  should 
be  made  about  two  months  before  that  show  occurs.     The  birds  on  which  the 
breeder  has  had  his  eye,  looking  at  them  as  possible  winners,  ought  then  to  be 
separated  from  the  rest,  and  thoroughly  inspected  in  every  section  to  see  just 
what  shape  they  are  in,  and  what  individual  treatment  each  requires  to  put  it 
in  the  best  possible  condition  for  the  show  room. 

The  novice  in  exhibiting  is  apt  to  rely  too  much  on  the  general  appearance 
of  the  fowl.  The  veteran  exhibitor  never  takes  a  bird  at  his  face  value  as  he 
runs  in  the  yard  or  stands  in  the  coop.  As  soon  as  the  specimen  is  in  his 
hands  he  makes  a  thorough  search  for  hidden  defects  and  faults  only  found  by 
close  inspection.  A  bird  having  bad  faults  which  cannot  be  remedied,  is 
rejected  ;  blemishes  which  can  be  removed  by  legitimate  means,  are  corrected. 
In  selecting  specimens  for  the  show  room,  it  is  looks  that  count ;  looks  count 
for  everything.  Blemishes  which  might  be  passed  over  in  a  breeding  bird  are 
inadmissible  in  a  show  bird.  The  smallest  positive  disqualification  immediately 
throws  it  out  of  the  category  of  exhibition  birds.  As  disqualifications  are 
distinctly  specified  in  the  Standard,  there  is  little  excuse  for  even  the  greenest 
exhibitor  entering  a  bird  which  will  be  debarred  from  competition.  One  has 
simply  to  take  each  bird  in  hand,  and  with  a  list  of  disqualifications  before 
him,  make  sure  that  the  specimen  is  free  from  each  and  every  one  of  them. 

The  selecting  process  must  proceed  still  further.  Not  every  bird  that  is 
free  from  disqualifications  is  capable  of  winning,  even  in  weak  competition. 
A  bird  that  is  very  faulty  in  several  sections  has  little  chance  of  winning. 
The  all  around  good  bird  is  the  exhibitor's  reliance.  Once  in  a  long  time  a 
bird  is  found  fit  to  go  from  the  yard  to  the  show  room  (and  in  that  case  the 
exhibitor's  effort  is  directed  to  preventing  injury,  and  keeping  it  in  good 
condition) ,  but  in  most  cases  a  great  deal  needs  to  be  done  before  the  bird  is 
ready  to  show.  To  show  to  advantage,  birds  must  be  in  perfect  condition, 
and  must  have  been  so  handled  that  they  are  not  "  coop  shy,"  are  not  disturbed 
by  the  inspection  of  visitors  or  the  handling  of  the  judges,  but  will  pose  and 
show  themselves  to  best  advantage. 

300.  While  Being  Prepared  for  Showing — fowls  are  best  kept  in 
small  pens,  in  which  they  are  easily  caught  and  handled.     If  there  is  no  such 
provision  for  them,  they  may  be  kept  for  a  few  days  in  exhibition  coops,  then 
in  the  pen  with  yard,  then  in  the  coop  again,  etc.  — the  object  being  to  have 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT.  205 

them  easy  to  get  at  when  it  is  necessary  to  handle  them,  to  accustom  them 
to  being  handled,  and  at  the  same  time  not  keep  them  too  closely  confined. 
No  males  should  be  allowed  to  run  with  females  which  are  to  be  exhibited, 
nor  should  two  males  be  allowed  to  get  together.  Extraordinary  precautions 
must  be  taken  to  keep  males  from  fighting,  or  a  good  bird  may  easily  be 
spoiled  for  showing,  and  weeks  of  painstaking  work  gone  for  nothing. 

301.  Care  of  the  Plumage.  —  One  of  the  first  things  to  be  done  in  fitting 
the  specimen  is  to  pluck  out  all  broken,  stained,  and  foul*  feathers,  that  new 
ones  may  grow  out  in  their  places.  Old  birds  need  to  be  very  carefully  looked 
over  for  dead  stubs  of  feathers  that  failed  to  moult  out.  The  backs  of  hens 
often  contain  feathers  broken  by  the  feet  of  the  male ;  and  there  are  nearly 
always  some  worn  and  broken  feathers  on  the  feet  of  Asiatics. 

The  plumage  can  be  cleaned  and  polished  by  compelling  the  birds  to 
exercise  in  clean  straw,  and  by  furnishing  a  dust  bath  containing  a  liberal 
proportion  of  clean  fine  sand.  The  plumage  of  white  fowls,  if  not  made 
clean  enough  by  these  means,  can  be  washed. 

"  Washing  Show  Birds.  —  Use  Pear's  or  Ivory  soap,  as  soap  with  rosin  in  it  will  ruin  all 
chances  of  a  successful  washing.  Thoroughly  soap  and  lather  to  the  skin,  and  leave  it 
on  long  enough  to  cut  all  dirt,  or  any  gummy  or  adhering  substance  in  the  plumage. 
Then  remove  to  a  second  tub  of  clean  lukewarm  water,  deep  enough  to  submerge  the  fowls, 
and  by  gently  rubbing  with  a  large  sponge  with  the  feathers,  remove  every  bit  of  soap. 
Then  shake  the  plumage  in  the  water  thoroughly,  and  rub  it  to  the  usual  smooth  condi- 
tion. At  last  plunge  in  a  tub  of  cold  water  that  has  been  blued  as  the  housewife  blues  the 
water  for  the  linen  in  her  wash.  By  gentle  manipulation  of  the  plumage  thoroughly  rinse 
it  with  this  blue  water,  and  take  the  bird  out  into  a  wire  bottom  dripping  cage,  allowing 
the  specimen  himself  to  shake  the  water  out,  and  then  he  may  be  removed  to  either  of 
two  rooms. 

"  Now  the  best  in  the  world  is  a  room  the  floor  of  which  is  covered  four  inches  deep 
with  sea  beach  sand,  and  the  atmosphere  heated  to  100  degrees,  having  been  warm 
long  enough  to  heat  the  sand  to  100  degrees.  Then  allow  the  room  to  cool  to  70  degrees 


*  NOTE. —  If  false  colored  feathers  grow  in  off -color  again,  they  must  be  again  removed 
if  the  bird  is  to  be  exhibited.  Their  removal  is  -wrong,  in  that  poultry  associations  have  a 
rule  prohibiting  it.  Like  all  rules  and  laws,  this  is  effective  only  as  far  as  it  can  be 
enforced  —  and  can  be  enforced  only  when  infringements  are  detected,  and  public  opinion 
sustains  those  who  attempt  to  enforce  the  law.  The  removal  of  a  few  feathers  from  the 
soft  plumage  of  a  fowl  could  only  be  detected  after  a  most  searching  examination.  If  there 
were  a  disposition  to  enforce  the  rule,  the  removal  of  foul  feathers  could  only  be  proved 
in  the  case  of  one  caught  in  the  act  by  some  one  interested  in  furnishing  such  proof. 
Notwithstanding  the  rule,  the  plucking  of  a  few  foul  feathers  will  never  be  regarded,  by 
those  who  know  how  rarely  birds  are  produced  without  them,  as  a  flagrant  sin.  Indeed, 
the  more  general  opinion  is  that  it  is  the  rule  that  is  wrong  —  in  not  making  sensible 
exceptions, —  and  that  the  practice  is  justifiable,  if  not  absolutely  right.  Inasmuch  as 
feather  plucking  is  done  openly  and  universally,  it  does  not  really  constitute  a  deception 
except  on  those  who  wish  to  feel  themselves  deceived.  The  matter  is  one  that  causes  new 
exhibitors  a  great  deal  of  concern.  Unless  one  can  satisfy  himself  that  "  plucking"  is 
excusable,  he  will  feel  more  comfortable  if  he  leaves  his  birds  at  home. 


206  PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 

at  the  height  of  a  man's  waist.  This  will  cause  the  heat  to  rise  from  the  sand,  and  the 
fowls  will,  with  the  water  in  the  plumage,  secure  a  steam  or  Turkish  bath  that  will  make 
the  plumage  spread  out  to  its  fullest  extent,  and  be  immaculately  white. 

"  Or,  put  the  bird  in  a  cage  with  a  wire  bottom  and  cut  straw  that  is  absolutely  clean, 
and  set  this  cage  over  a  register  so  as  to  heat  the  straw  to  100  degrees  in  a  room  of  70 
degrees ;  and  in  this  let  the  bird  steam  dry.  When  washing  brush  the  black  dirt  out 
from  under  the  scales  of  the  legs  and  toes,  as  one  cleans  one's  finger  nails."  [I.  K.  FELCH, 
in  Reliable  Poultry  Journal.  ] 

If  a  bird  does  not  carry  its  wings  right ;  if  the  tail  is  too  fan-like,  or  too 
pinched ;  if  the  sickles  do  not  set  right ;  if  anything  of  this  kind  is  wrong,  it 
can  and  should  be  made  right  by  frequently  stroking,  shaping,  and  manipu- 
lating the  feathers  with  the  hands,  until  at  last  they  take  proper  positions. 

302.  Care  of  the  Head.  — If  a  comb  does  not  set  quite  right,  it  can  oftea 
be  adjusted  by  a  little  manipulation  with  the  fingers.     The  comb  of  a  Leghorn 
hen  that  does  not  lop  nicely  can  be  formed  in  a  very  short  time  to  shape  just 
as  desired,  and  will  stay  that  way  through  the  show  and  afterwards.      The 
comb  of  a  male  that  does  not  stand  true,  or  bulges  over  the  beak,  can  be  very 
much  improved  by  simply  working  it  as  near  what  it  should  be  as  possible 
with  the  fingers.     The  wattles,  too,  yield  to  treatment ; —  and  all  such  methods 
are  perfectly  legitimate. 

Just  previous  to  the  show  the  head,  comb,  and  wattles  should  be  sponged 
clean,  to  free  them  from  dirt  and  dandruff,  then  rubbed  (not  smeared)  with 
vaseline. 

303.  Care  of  the  Feet.  —  If  the  feet  are  at  all  scaly,  the  thing  first  in 
order  is  to  get  rid  of  the  parasites,  (1F3I5)  ;  afterwards  the  shanks  and  toes 
can  be  well  rubbed  with  vaseline  or  olive  oil.     A  sound  foot  once  lost  can 
never  be  restored,  but  if  the  bird  is  otherwise  good,  and  the  company  he  is 
going  into  not  too  hot,  it  is  worth  while  to  put  the  bad  feet  in  condition — they 
ought  to  be  taken  care  of,  whether  the  bird  is  to  be  shown  or  not. 

304.  The  Food  Previous  to  Exhibition  need  not  vary  from  the  regular 
diet,  unless  it  is  necessary  to  force  a  fowl  to  bring  it  up  to  weight.     If  a  fowl 
in  good  condition  is  much  short  in  weight,  forcing  is  very  likely  to  impair 
its  future  usefulness  in  the  breeding  pen.     If  the  fowl  is  in  poor  condition, 
judicious  heavy  feeding  will  do  it  good,  aside  from  increasing  its  chances  of 
winning.     For  rapid  forcing  Felch  recommends  a  diet  of  whole  corn,  grit, 
and  raw  beef.     On  this  diet,  he  states,  from  seven  to  fourteen  ounces  can  be 
put  on  a  bird  in  a  week.     Some  breeders  use  bread  and  milk  and  sugar  for 
forcing. 

A  few  exhibitors  make  a  practice  —  and  it  is  surely  a  good  one  —  of  feeding 
the  birds  to  be  exhibited,  for  some  days  prior  to  sending  them  to  a  show,  on  a 
diet  as  nearly  as  possible  like  what  they  will  get  at  the  show.  Thus  the  birds 
are  not  subjected  to  an  abrupt  change  of  diet  as  well  as  of  other  conditions 
when  sent  to  the  show  room. 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 


207 


305.  Leg  Bands  are  nearly  always  needed.     A  few  shows  do  not  allow 
them.     It  depends  on  the  systems  of  cooping  and  judging  used.     The  show 
premium  list  furnishes  explicit  instructions.     If  bands  are  used,  they  ought  to 
be  removed  when  the  birds  return.     The  feet  are  often  badly  hurt  by  bands 
left  on  too  long. 

306.  Exhibition  Coops.  —  When  the  show  association  furnishes  coops, 

the  birds  may  be  shipped  in  common 
shipping  coops,  illustrated  in  Figs. 
82 —  83.  When  the  exhibitor  is 
required  to  furnish  his  own  coops, 
combined  shipping  and  exhibition 
coops  (see  Fig.  84),  should  be  used. 
Often  the  associations  suggest  certain 
sizes  of  coops,  that  the  display  may  be 
more  uniform,  and  neater  in  appear- 
ance. If  the  dimensions  of  the  coop 
are  left  to  the  exhibitor,  he  ought 
always  to  be  sure  to  give  his  birds 
plenty  of  room,  and  never  make  the 
mistake  of  sending  birds  in  a  low  coop.  The  dimensions  of  the  coop  illus- 
trated are  :  height,  30  in.  ;  width,  30  in. ;  depth,  24  in.  Whether  birds  are 
sent  in  a  shipping  or  in  a  shipping-exhibition  coop,  a  neat,  clean  coop  should 
be  used.  It  is  not  at  all  creditable  to  a  breeder  to  send  out  his  fowls  in  a 
rough,  dirty  coop. 

In  shipping  exhibition  birds  which  are  to  be  returned  to  the  same  owner,  it 
makes  no  difference  in  cost  of  transportation  which  style  of  shipping  coop  is 
used.  If  birds  are  sent  in  a  coop  that  takes  them  at  single  rate,  the  express 
companies  charge  for  returning  them  ;  if  they  go  at  double  rate,  they  are 
returned  free. 

307.  Ought  an  Exhibitor  to  Accompany  His  Birds  ?— It  is  better  that 
he  should,  but  it  is  not  really  necessary.     Many  poultry  men  will  not  show 
unless  they  can  go  with  their  birds.     It  is,  of  course,  a  matter  in  which  each 
must  judge  for  himself.     If  all  followed  that  course  many  persons  would  be 
unable  to  exhibit,  and  there  would  be  fewer  and  poorer  shows.     The  absent 
exhibitor's  stock  is  not  always  looked  after  as  he  would  look  after  it  himself. 
On  the  whole,  however,  it  is  pretty  carefully  handled. 


Pi  f.  84.    A  Combined  Exhibition  and  Shipping  Coop. 


308.  After  the  Show  — the  returned  fowls  should  be  kept  quiet,  and  fed 
rather  light  for  a  few  days.  It  frequently  happens  that  fowls  coming  out  of 
a  winter  show  strike  weather  much  colder  than  any  they  had  experienced 
before  going  into  it  —  weather  so  severe  that  the  change  from  the  warm  show 


2o8  PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 

room  to  any  ordinary  poultry  house  would  be  too  great  for  safety.  In  that 
case  it  is  better  to  keep  them  in  the  coops,  and  the  coops  in  a  warm  place  for 
a  day  or  two. 

309.  Exhibiting  Dressed  Poultry  and  Eggs.  —  Though  there  are,  as 
yet,  only  a  few  poultry  shows  having  dressed  poultry  and  egg  departments,  it 
is  probable  that,  before  long,  practical  exhibits  will  be  a  feature  of  every  show 
room.  Fowls  are  dressed  for  exhibition  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  for  market. 
A  poultryman  who  has  fine  market  poultry  to  sell  cannot  advertise  it  better 
than  by  exhibiting  some  of  his  best.  A  breeder  whose  fancy  stock  possesses 
good  practical  qualities,  finds  it  well  worth  while  to  make  a  reputation  as  an 
exhibitor  of  dressed  poultry  and  "most  fancy  fresh"  eggs.  Eggs  packed  in 
small  lots  for  exhibition  go  best  in  such  boxes  or  baskets  as  are  used  for 
packing  hatching  eggs.  In  making  an  exhibit  of  a  dozen  eggs,  it  is  advisable 
to  use,  if  possible,  eggs  laid  by  one  hen. 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT.  209 


CHAPTER    XIV. 


Diseases,  Parasites,  and  Enemies  of  Fowls. 

310.  The  Unprofitableness  of  Doctoring. — To  succeed  in  " doctoring" 
a  stubborn  case  of  sickness  or  a  persistent  epidemic  in  his  flock,  is  one  of  the 
worst  misfortunes  that  can  befall  a  poultry  keeper.  It  puts  him  on  a  wrong 
course  —  his  stock  on  a  bad  footing.  It  gets  him  into  the  habit  of  fussing 
with  and  dosing  his  birds,  and,  in  consequence,  his  place  is  soon  stocked  with 
fowls  of  enfeebled  constitutions,  predisposed  to  disease.  The  greater  one's 
success  in  treating  well  developed  disease  the  more  sick  fowls  he  will  have. 

Still,  the  poultryman  needs  to  know  enough  of  the  symptoms  of  different 
diseases  to  be  able  to  detect  each  at  an  early  stage ;  enough  of  the  causes  of 
particular  diseases  to  enable  him  to  take  efficient  preventive  measures  for  the 
well  fowls  when  sickness  does  appear  in  his  flock  ;  and  something  of  the  modes 
and  effects  of  using  the  simple  remedies  which,  if  used  in  time,  will  often 
check  a  disease  before  it  has  reached  a  danger  point.  He  needs  to  learn  in 
which  diseases  (and  at  what  stages)  it  will  pay  —  both  immediately  and  in 
the  long  run  —  to  use  drugs,  and  when  it  is  best  to  resort  to  the  hatchet  and 
the  spade ;  and  he  needs  to  get  firm  hold  of  the  fact  that  when  once  disease 
has  become  established  in  a  flock,  a  good  sharp  hatchet,  vigorously  used,  will 
do  more  for  him  than  all  the  medical  knowledge  and  all  the  drugs  in  the  world. 

On  the  whole,  diseases  of  fowls  closely  resemble  human  diseases.  No  doubt 
they  are  in  many  cases  identical.  If  correctly  diagnosed  a  case  of  sickness  in 
the  poultry  yard  can  often  be  identified  as  like  some  common  human  malady, 
and  may  be  successfully  treated  in  the  same  way.  This  is  a  good  thing  to 
remember,  because  in  an  emergency  one  may  have  in  the  house  a  u  family" 
remedy  which  will  be  effective  if  immediately  applied  to  a  sick  fowl,  while  if 
no  remedy  were  given  until  a  regular  poultry  medicine  could  be  obtained,  the 
fowl  would  be  lost.  A  considerable  proportion  of  the  cases  of  sickness  in  the 
fowl  yard  yield  to  very  simple  treatment  if  taken  in  time ;  the  great  trouble  is 
that  they  are  not  observed  soon  enough,  or  there  is  nothing  at  hand  to  give  the 
sick  bird.  It  is  possible  to  cure  many  bad  cases  ;  but  —  the  life  of  a  well  fowl 
is  not  as  a  rule  worth  much  in  dollars  and  cents,  and  the  life  of  a  sick  fowl  is 
worth  so  much  less  that  a  poultryman  ought  not  to  begin  a  course  of  doctoring 
when  circumstances  call  for  individual  treatment  for  many  fowls,  or  for  a  long 
course  of  treatment  for  one  or  several  individual  birds.  It  is  not  only  the  cost 
of  the  medicines  and  the  value  of  the  time  spent  in  administering  them,  and 


210  POULTRT-CRAFT. 

in  giving  the  fowl  the  special  care  demanded  by  its  condition,  that  have  to  be 
taken  into  account.  The  cost  of  feeding  and  housing  and  caring  for  the  con- 
valesced fowl  until  again  productive,  must  be  reckoned  up  against  doctoring. 
When  to  this  is  added  the  well  established  fact  that  a  fowl  once  dangerously 
sick  with  an  organic  disease  is  afterwards  worse  than  worthless*  as  a  breeder, 
the  poultry  keeper  should  have  no  difficulty  in  making  his  estimate  of  the  ins 
and  outs  of  physicking  fowls  show  that  unless  an  epidemic  is  so  mild  that  it 
yields  readily  to  simple  remedies,  applied  in  the  ordinary  food  and  drink,  and 
corrected  sanitary  conditions ; —  or  an  individual  case  not  yet  past  the  stage 
when  a  very  few  treatments  could  be  expected  to  prove  effective,  it  is  better  to 
kill  than  to  try  to  cure. 

311.     Some  General  Rules  for  Preventing  Diseases. 

( i ) .  By  good  care  —  with  all  that  that  includes  :  correct  sanitary  conditions, 
good  houses,  well  sunned,  aired  or  closed,  according  to  weather  and  tempera- 
ture ;  proper  food,  exercise,  cleanliness. 

(2).  By  quarantining  all  new  fowls  as  long  as  there  is  danger  of  their 
contracting  diseases  from  or  transmitting  them  to  old  stock. 

This  is  a  matter  of  very  great  importance.  The  germs  of  some  diseases  to 
which  acclimated  fowls  have  been  immune  often  infect  unacclimated  fowls, 
which  are  for  the  time  less  able  to  resist,  and  having  thus  gained  a  foothold 
will  successfully  attack  the  acclimated  fowls.  The  contrary  also  often  happecis. 
The  new  fowls  bring  with  them  the  germs  of  disease  which  in  their  old  home 
they  had  successfully  resisted,  but  to  which  they  now  succumb,  and  if  the 
breeder  is  at  all  careless  the  whole  stock  may  be  affected. 

(3).  By  preventing  fowls  from  outside  flocks  from  coming  in  contact  with 
members  of  the  flock,  or  even  feeding  on  the  same  ground.  Pigeons,  also, 
should  be  kept  away ;  they  are  the  worst  disease  mongers  of  all  domestic  birds. 

(4).  By  promptly  caring  for  fowls  which  seem  the  least  indisposed,  and 
correcting  wrong  conditions  as  soon  as  their  effects  are  noted.  Too  often  such 
measures  are  neglected  until  disease  has  positively  developed. 

*  NOTE. —  Such  fowls  are  worse  than  worthless  as  breeders,  because  there  is  born  in 
their  offspring  a  strong  tendency  to  contract  the  same  disease  at  the  age  at  which  the 
parents  had  it.  It  happens  so  often  as  to  justify  saying  that  it  is  the  rule,  that  among 
the  offspring  of  fowls  recovered  from  a  severe  attack  of  diphtheritic  roup,  that  disease 
will  become  epidemic,  when  the  offspring  of  fowls  which  had  never  had  the  disease  are 
not  at  all  affected,  though  kept  under  the  same  conditions,  and  sometimes  in  the  same 
house,  unless  the  disease  is  literally  forced  on  them  by  constant  contact  with  sick  fowls. 
The  loss  of  a  single  bird  is  at  most  a  loss  of  only  a  few  dollars.  An  outbreak  of  disease 
among  the  descendants  of  a  fowl  debilitated  by  that  disease,  may  cause  a  loss  of  hundreds 
of  dollars,  for  under  such  circumstances  the  disease  is  apt  to  be  so  virulent,  its  course  so 
rapid,  that  such  treatment  as  would  ordinarily  succeed  in  the  early  stages  of  the  malady, 
proves  ineffective. 


POULTRT-CRAFT.  211 

Entire  prevention  of  disease  is  not  possible  when  any  considerable  stock  of 
poultry  is  kept ;  nor  is  it  continuously  possible  under  any  conditions.  In  a 
small  flock  of  fowls,  healthy  and  well  cared  for,  one,  two  or  three  seasons  may 
pass  without  a  sick  fowl,  even  though  the  rate  of  loss,  as  finally  determined  is 
greater  than  in  a  large  stock  in  which  there  are  deaths  every  month  in  the 
year.  There  are  people  who  claim  to  breed  poultry  on  quite  an  extensive 
scale  without  losses  from  disease ;  but  such  statements  are  not  credited  by  per- 
sons who  have  had  experience  in  handling  fowls  in  large  numbers. 

312.     Hints  to  Guide  in  the  Diagnosis  of  the  Ailments  of  Fowls. - 

The  common  diseases  of  poultry,  their  causes,  symptoms  and  simplest  remedies, 
are  given  in  the  next  paragraph.  The  hints  given  in  this  are  to  help  the 
reader  to  go  as  quickly  as  possible  to  the  information  he  needs.  Such  hints 
cannot  be  infallible,  but  will  be  found  right  in  the  great  majority  of  cases. 

When  a  fowl  sneezes,  waters  slightly  at  the  nostrils  and  eyes,  the  face  puffs 
up  —  any  or  all  of  these  symptoms  indicate  a  common  cold. 

When  it  rattles  in  the  throat,  it  has  a  cold  with  bronchitis. 

When  it  experiences  great  difficulty  in  breathing,  it  has,  probably,  pneumonia. 

When  cankers  form  in  the  mouth  and  throat,  it  has  diphtheria  or  diphthe- 
ritic roup. 

When  discharges  from  the  nostrils  are  profuse  and  ill-smelling,  it  has 
common  roup,  influenza.  Looseness  of  the  bowels  accompanies  many  dis- 
eases, and  if  there  are  symptoms  indictating  the  presence  of  another  disease 
(not  intestinal),  that  should  be  treated  first. 

Looseness  of  the  bowels,  the  feathers  around  the  vent  smeared  and  gummed 
with  the  discharges,  is  diarrhoea. 

A  bloody  diarrhrea  may  be  either  dysentery  or  enteritis. 

Greenish  discharges,  turning  to  frothy  white,  are  given  as  a  symptom  of 
cholera;  but  greenish  yellow,  frothy  white  discharges  frequently  accompany 
roup,  and  are  often  found  under  such  conditions  that  it  is  impossible  to 
suppose  cholera. 

A  dark  purplish  comb  and  face,  generally  ruffled  appearance,  and  brownish, 
watery  discharge,  indicate  congestion  of  the  liver. 

Symptoms  as  above,  but  more  pronounced,  and  with  yellowish  discharges, 
indicate  that  the  disease  has  developed  into  inflammation  of  the  liver. 

Small  hard  lumps  under  the  skin  of  the  face,  occur  in  roup. 

Ulcers  about  the  head  and  face  are  generally  chicken  pox. 

A  yellowish  looking  head  and  face,  indicate  general  debility,  ancemia,  or 
consumption. 

General  listlessness  without  symptoms  of  specific  disease,  indicates 
indigestion. 

Lameness  is  generally  the  result  of  an  accident,  or  of  rheumatism. 

Twisting  of  the  head  and  neck  is  due  to  cramps,  rheumatism,  giddiness. 

Jerking  of  the  head  is  due  to  pressure  of  blood  on  the  brain,  that  is,  to  head- 
ache. 


212  POULTR  T-  CRAFT. 

Fowls  dying  suddenly  had  apoplexy;  heart  failure;  choked.  Many  so- 
called  sudden  deaths  are  sudden  only  because  the  keeper  failed  to  note  plain 
symptoms. 

313.  Diseases  of  Poultry.  —  In  the  following  list  of  diseases  no  special 
effort  has  been  made  to  have  descriptions  and  terms  technically  correct.  The 
object  is  to  describe  the  diseases  for  those  who  have  neither  time  nor  inclination 
to  give  such  matters  more  study  than  is  required  to  learn  when  to  physic  and 
when  to  kill.  Those  who  wish  to  look  into  the  subject  more  fully,  or  who 
prefer  to  doctor  whenever  a  cure  is  possible,  should  get  a  more  extended  work 
on  poultry  diseases.  Neither  space  nor  the  plan  of  this  book  would  admit  full 
descriptions  here. 

Ancemia,  —  a  condition  of  the  blood,  poor  blood,  due  generally  to  lack  of  proper  food, 
fresh  air,  or  sunshine.  Remedied  by  correcting  conditions. 

Apoplexy,  —  rush  of  blood  to  the  head,  caused  by  over-eating,  violent  exercise,  fright, 
extreme  heat ;  rarely  observed  until  the  victim  is  too  far  gone  for  treatment.  Bleed  from 
vein  in  under  side  of  wing;  if  possible,  give  two  drops  of  croton  oil. 

Bowel  Trouble  —  see  Diarrhoea  ;  also  IT  261. 

Break  Down  Behind —  if  simply  due  to  over-fat,  may  be  remedied  by  putting  hen  on 
light  diet ;  if  the  disorder  is  due  to  derangement  of  the  oviduct,  it  is  generally  incurable. 

Broken  Bones  —  easily  treated  if  the  break  is  in  the  shank;  put  on  light  splints,  and 
wrap  firmly.  If  the  break  is  anywhere  else,  the  fowl  should  be  killed. 

Bronchitis  —  a  catarrh,  a  bad  cold  accompanied  by  coughing  or  rattling  in  the  throat : 
give  aconite,  as  for  a  cold  ;  or  use  any  convenient  remedy  suitable  for  coughs  and  colds. 

Bumble-foot — an  abscess  on  the  sole  of  the  foot,  caused  by  bruising  by  jumping  from 
the  roost :  treatment,  if  taken  early,  wash  with  strong  vinegar,  and  apply  tincture  of 
cocaine;  if  the  abscess  is  well  developed,  open  by  making  two  cuts,  crossing  thus,  X; 
wash  out  all  matter  with  warm  water  containing  carbolic  acid ;  apply  nitrate  of  silver, 
ten  grains  to  one  ounce  of  distilled  water. 

Canker — see  Roup. 

Chicken  Pox  —  small  ulcers  on  the  head  and  face  :  wash  with  carbolic  soapsuds ;  anoint 
with  vaseline  or  fresh  lard. 

Cholera  —  a  contagious  disease  of  the  bowels,  caused  by  combined  conditions  of  filthy 
quarters,  improper  food,  and  extreme  heat.  Most  so-called  cases  of  cholera  are  dysen- 
tery. Treatment  of  sick  birds  generally  useless ;  apparently  well  birds  should  be  given 
sulpho-carbolate  of  zinc  in  the  drinking  water,  one-eighth  of  an  ounce  of  the  drug  to  a 
quart  of  water. 

Colds — affect  fowls  variously,  and  if  neglected,  often  lead  to  something  serious;  — 
give  aconite  in  the  drinking  water,  a  dozen  homoeopathic  pellets  to  a  quart  of  water.  A 
good  remedy  to  keep  on  hand  to  use  for  colds,  bronchitis,  etc.,  is:  equal  parts  cayenne 
pepper,  ginger  and  mustard,  mixed  as  stiffly  as  possible  in  lard,  then  flour  worked  in  to 
make  a  stiff  dough ;  form  in  slugs  or  pellets  about  the  size  of  a  small  hazel  nut ;  give  by 
opening  the  mouth  and  dropping  down  the  throat.  A  single  treatment  often  cures ;  if  it 
does  not,  it  should  be  followed  by  another  dose  in  twenty-four  hours. 

If  the  cold  is  accompanied  by  puffing  of  the  skin  of  the  face,  bathe  the  parts  affected 
every  two  or  three  hours  with  warm  water  containing  about  i  per  cent  carbolic  acid  ;  keep 
in  a  warm  dry  place ;  at  night  rub  with  vaseline. 

For  treatment  of  colds,  see  also  IT  174. 

Constipation  —  caused  by  lack  of  exercise  and  of  green  food;  in  young  chicks  by  too 


POULTRT-CRAFT.  213 

much  boiled  milk  or  "  binding"  food.  Correct  conditions  for  chicks:  for  adult  fowls 
give  castor  oil,  castoria,  etc. ;  any  laxative  that  happens  to  be  convenient  will  do. 

Consumption  —  follows  colds,  pneumonia,  etc.;  bird  grows  thin  and  weak,  "goes 
light ; "  sometimes  has  good  appetite,  but  passes  food  from  the  bowel  undigested.  In 
early  stages  this  disease  may  easily  be  confounded  with  anaemia.  Treatment  useless. 

Cramp — see  Rheumatism. 

Crop  Bound — give  castor  oil,  or  warm  water;  knead  contents  of  crop,  and  try  to  force 
them  out  gradually  through  the  mouth  of  the  bird,  held  head  down ;  if  this  fails,  open  the 
crop,  removing  a  few  feathers  and  making  a  short  incision  through  the  breast,  at  the  top 
of  the  crop ;  remove  contents,  and  sew  up,  taking  care  not  to  sew  skins  together. 

Crop,  enlarged — can  be  treated  by  cutting  out  a  part  of  the  skin  and  sewing  up;  not 
often  worth  the  trouble. 

Crop,  Inflammation  of — generally  due  to  eating  a  poisonous  or  irritating  substance; 
not  likely  to  be  correctly  diagnosed,  and  in  most  cases  useless  to  treat  when  discovered. 
Keep  such  substances  away  from  fowls. 

Debility  —  general  weakness,  without  indications  of  organic  disease;  give  good  care, 
and  start  on  the  up  grade  with  tonics  or  stimulants. 

Diarrhoea  —  check  by  giving  boiled  milk  to  drink  and  dry  food. 

Diphtheria  —  see  Roup. 

Distemper  —  a  term  loosely  applied  to  a  variety  of  diseases,  generally  a  mild  cold  or 
fever. 

Dysentery  —  an  acute  bloody  diarrhoea,  mostly  incurable. 

Egg  Bound — treatment  not  often  permanently  successful ;  give  dose  of  castor  oil;  if 
this  fails  wash  the  vent  with  warm  water,  and  pass  in  a  feather  dipped  in  sweet  oil. 

Egg  Broken  in  Body  —  hen  will  die. 

Enteritis  —  a  non-contagious,  acute  diarrhoea,  due  to  poison  or  irritants,  or  to  the 
presence  of  worms. 

Feather  Eating —  probably  originates  in  an  abnormal  appetite.  Nearly  always  the 
spread  of  the  vice  can  be  prevented  by  killing  the  guilty  bird.  Watch  for  it. 

Frost  Bite  —  to  combs  apply  two  or  three  times  a  day  a  mixture  of  vaseline,  five  table- 
spoons ;  glycerine,  two  tablespoons ;  spirits  of  turpentine,  one  teaspoon.  When  feet  are 
badly  frosted  kill  the  bird. 

Gapes — gape  worms  in  the  windpipe.  Place  the  birds,  a  few  at  a  time,  in  a  large  box 
covered  with  a  coarse  cloth,  and  having  a  door  in  the  side ;  dust  air-slaked  lime  on  the 
cloth.  The  lime  breathed  in  by  the  birds  causes  the  worms  to  relax  their  hold,  and  they 
are  coughed  up. 

Giddiness  —  a  mild  form  of  apoplexy ;  can  often  be  relieved  by  bleeding  under  the  wing. 

Indigestion  —  generally  due  to  over-feeding;  correct  the  diet,  give  abundance  of  green 
food,  compel  exercise,  avoid  stimulants. 

Itch  —  a  warm  weather  eruption  on  the  skin,  often  followed  by  loss  of  feathers  :  anoint 
with  mixture  one  part  carbolic  acid,  two  parts  lard. 

Lameness — due  to  accident  or  rheumatism. 

Leg  Weakness  —  generally  due  to  forcing,  or  to  lack  of  bone  forming  material  in  the 
food  :  discontinue  high  feeding,  but  still  feed  well,  giving  cut  bone  or  bone  meal  liberally. 

Liver  Disease  —  due  to  over-feeding ;  begins  in  congestion  of  the  liver :  if  allowed  to 
reach  the  stage  when  inflammation  sets  in,  does  not  yield  to  treatment.  Use  a  good  liver 
pill,  and,  of  course,  correct  wrong  conditions. 

Pip  —  a  condition  of  the  tongue  accompanying  diseases  when  the  bird  is  obliged  to 
breathe  through  the  mouth ;  treat  the  disease ;  wet  the  tongue  frequently  with  glycerine. 

Pneumonia  —  brought  on  by  exposure  to  extreme  heat  or  cold,  and  by  sudden  change, 
dampness,  etc. ;  generally  incurable. 

Rattling  in  the  Throat  —  see  Bronchitis. 


214  POULTRT-  CRAFT. 

Roup.  — The  term  is  used  to  apply  to  a  variety  of  diseases  affecting  the  head  and 
throat.  The  present  tendency  is  to  limit  the  use  of  the  word  roup  to  diphtheria,  or 
diphtheritic  roup,  and  to  call  ordinary  roup  not  seriously  affecting  the  throat,  influenza. 
Influenza  can  be  treated  as  a  cold.  For  diphtheria  a  number  of  different  treatments  have 
been  successful  at  one  time,  and  failed  at  another.  Whether  or  not  a  cure  can  be  effected, 
probably  depends  as  much  on  the  constitution  and  antecedents  of  the  fowl  as  a  treatment. 
Most  of  the  roup  remedies  advertised  have  been  successfully  used  in  many  cases.  Experi- 
enced practical  poultrymen  do  not  doctor  fowls  which  have  diphtheria.  They  kill  and  bury, 
or  burn  them.  For  those  who  wish  to  try  to  save  their  birds,  the  following  remedies  are 
given  : 

One  ounce  oil  of  sassafras,  one  ounce  best  Jamaica  ginger,  one  ounce  tincture  of  iron, 
one  ounce  alcohol,  a  half-ounce  prickly  ash  fluid  extract,  one-fourth  ounce  oil  of  anise. 
Dose,  fifteen  drops  to  one  teaspoonf ul  to  each  gallon  drinking  water. 

The  following  treatment,  suggested  by  A.  V.  Meersch,  has  been  successfully  used  in 
many  cases  :  —  Clean  out  the  pus,  if  in  the  mouth,  with  a  little  wooden  spatula ;  if  you 
make  it  bleed  a  little,  don't  be  alarmed.  When  this  is  done,  wash  the  mouth  with  cotton 
wadding,  attached  to  a  little  stick  of  wood,  saturated  in  peroxide  of  hydrogen,  then  drop 
a  little  aristol  on  each  sore  place ;  repeat  this  operation  morning  and  evening  for  three 
days. 

Dr.  H.  A.  Stevenson  reports  having  both  cured  sick  birds,  and  immunized  others  by 
injecting  antitoxine. 

Worms  are  properly  parasites.  Two  kinds  affect  fowls.  Round  worms  are  quite 
common ;  tape  worms  rare.  The  presence  of  worms  is  not  often  detected  except  by 
examination  after  death.  If  a  bird  dying  is  found  to  have  had  worms,  give  well  members 
of  the  flock  turpentine  in  the  soft  food  in  proportion  of  two  or  three  drops  of  turpentine 
to  each  fowl. 

White  Comb  —  a  scurfy  condition  of  the  comb,  due  to  unsanitary  surroundings;  use  an 
ointment  —  heaping  teaspoon  oleate  of  zinc  to  half-teacup  of  vaseline  —  wash  the  comb 
and  head  with  carbolic  soap  and  warm  water  before  applying. 

Wind  Puffs  —  due  to  injury  to  lung  tissue ;  relieved  by  pricking,  •  but  not  always 
curable. 

314.  Hospital  and   Medicine  Chest.  —  For  the  simple  treatment,  of 
which  the  object  is  to  check  incipient,  rather  than  cure  established  disease, 
the  poultryman  should  have  an  isolated  building,  small,  but  comfortable,  and 
should  keep  on  hand   a  few  of  the   remedies   most  efficacious  in  checking 
common  diseases.     It  is  prompt  work  that  counts. 

315.  Parasites. — 

Lice  probably  exist  in  small  numbers  wherever  there  are  fowls ;  but  as  long 
as  fowls  are  healthy  and  active  cannot  increase  rapidly  enough  to  seriously 
annoy  the  birds.  On  sick  and  injured  fowls,  scaly  legged  fowls,  sitting  hens, 
and  very  young  chicks,  they  thrive  when  the  general  stock  is  comparatively 
free  from  them.  Frequently  they  come  in  in  force  on  new  fowls.  It  should 
be  an  inviolable  rule  to  treat  new  fowls  thoroughly  for  lice  before  permitting 
them  to  mingle  with  the  flock,  for  the  lice  not  only  annoy  fowls,  they  carry 
the  germs  of  infectious  diseases  from  fowl  to  fowl.  The  most  effective  means 
of  ridding  fowls  of  lice  are  given  below,  quoted  from  Wood.  (See  also 
f  234  and  247)  : 


POULTRT-CRAFI.  215 

"  FUMIGATION  —  Use  ordinary  sulphur  candles  :  one  candle  will  serve  for  an  ordinary 
poultry  house  having  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  square  feet  of  floor  space.  Drive  the 
fowls  from  the  house,  and  carefully  close  all  doors  and  windows  before  lighting  the 
candle,  which  should  be  put  on  an  old  tin  can  cover  placed  on  a  pan  of  wet  ashes.  After 
lighting  the  sulphur  shut  the  house  up  tightly,  and  keep  it  so  for  four  or  five  hours.  Air 
the  building  thoroughly  before  allowing  the  fowls  to  return.  Treat  the  fowls  for  lice 
at  the  same  time. 

"INSECT  POWDERS — most  of  the  insect  powders  in  the  market  are  good.  Those  lice 
•powders  containing  tobacco  dust  are  best.  Dusting  with  insect  powder  is  of  no  value 
unless  thoroughly  done,  and  repeated  at  least  three  times,  at  intervals  of  a  week  or  ten 
days.  The  best  way  to  dust  a  fowl  is  to  hold  it  by  the  legs,  head  down,  over  a  box  or 
some  receptacle  to  catch  the  surplus  powder,  and  then,  with  the  free  hand,  work  the 
powder  thoroughly  into  the  feathers  and  down  to  the  skin. 

"KEROSENE  —  is  one  of  the  most  common,  cheapest,  and  best  insecticides  for  use  in 
the  poultry  house.  Kerosene  applied  every  month  to  the  roosts  is  a  good  remedy  against 
mites.  It  may  also  be  applied  with  a  brush  to  the  walls  and  all  cracks  in  the  poultry 
house. 

"KEROSENE  EMULSION  —  is  effective  in  place  of  whitewash  for  ridding  the  house  of 
vermin.  It  is  made  by  dissolving  a  pound  of  hard  soap  in  a  gallon  of  boiling  water, 
remove  from  the  fire  and,  while  hot,  add  two  gallons  of  kerosene.  Churn  or  agitate 
briskly  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  or  until  the  mixture  becomes  thick  and  creamy.  Then 
add  about  twenty  gallons  of  cold  water,  and  stir  in  thoroughly.  It  can  be  applied  to  the 
coop  by  a  sprayer,  a  watering  pot,  or  an  old  broom.  It  should  be  driven  well  into  all 
cracks. 

"  LIME  AND  SULPHUR  —  a  disinfecting  powder  is  made  of  lime  and  sulphur  as 
follows: — To  half  a  bushel  of  fresh,  thoroughly  air-slaked  lime  add  ten  pounds  of 
powdered  sulphur  and  a  fluid  ounce  of  carbolic  acid ;  mix  thoroughly  by  stirring  with 
a  stick.  This  powder  is  harmless  to  fowls,  and  may  be  used  freely  about  the  house,  and 
in  nests  and  dust  boxes. 

"TOBACCO  STEMS  and  sweepings  are  excellent  addition  to  nest  material  as  a  vermin 
preventive. 

"  Carry  on  the  warfare  against  vermin  in  the  poultry  house,  and  on  the  fowls  at  the  same 
time,  and  you  will  get  results." 

Besides  the  common  hen  lice,  fowls  suffer  from  attacks  of  other  insects  : 

Mosquitos  often  bite  combs,  faces,  and  wattles;  apply  a  little  carbolatecl 
vaseline. 

Buffalo  or  Turkey  Gnats  in  swarms  attack  fowls  along  river  bottoms, 
especially  in  Mississippi  valley  states.  Preventive  measures  are:  building 
smudge  fires,  and  smearing  exposed  parts  with  carbolated  vaseline,  or  some 
stinking  oil. 

Chiggers,  Harvest  Mites  are  common  in  the  Mississippi  valley  as  far  north 
as  Iowa.  They  harbor  in  weeds  and  bushes,  and  the  only  known  preventive 
is  to  keep  the  fowls  out  of  such  places. 

Fleas  sometimes  infest  poultry  houses.  They  are  destroyed  by  usual 
treatments  for  lice. 

Bedbugs  can  be  exterminated  by  using  whitewash,  to  which  turpentine  has 
been  added,  or  by  applying  to  the  spots  they  haunt:  "  Half-pint  each  of 


21 6  PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 

turpentine,  ammonia,  and  kerosene,  with  four  ounces  of  camphor.  Dissolve 
the  camphor  in  the  turpentine,  then  add  the  others  ;  apply  with  a  brush  freely." 

Scaly  Leg  is  caused  by  a  mite  which  burrows  under  the  scales  of  the  feet 
and  shanks.  The  crusts  can  be  loosened  by  soaking  in  warm,  soapy  water, 
or  by  vigorous  brushing  with  an  old  tooth  or  nail  brush.  When  they  have 
been  removed,  apply  sulphur  ointment,  or  a  mixture  of  lard  and  kerosene. 

Depluming  Scab  Mites  often  damage  feathers.  Woods  suggests  as 
remedies  sulphur  ointment  or  carbolized  vaseline  locally  applied,  adding  that 
large  areas  ought  not  to  be  covered  at  one  time,  as  the  effect  on  the  fowl  is 
injurious :  dusting  with  carbolized  lime  is  also  recommended. 

316.  Enemies  of  Fowls.  —  Domestic  fowls  have  a  host  of  feathered  and 
four-footed  enemies,  against  which  the  poultry  keeper  must  be  continually  on 
his  guard.  Preventive  measures  are  surest  and  best.  Secure  houses  and  coops 
to  prevent  night  raids  of  cats,  dogs,  skunks,  and  other  vermin.  For  those  which 
molest  the  fowls  in  the  daytime,  a  shot-gun  is  the  best  thing  when  circum- 
stances admit  of  using  it.  The  poultry  keeper  is  wisest  when  he  is  always 
prepared  for  marauders.  A  good  dog  can  be  trained  to  keep  cats,  hawks,  and 
other  dogs  away  from  the  fowls  in  daytime,  and  to  keep  watch  against  chicken 
thieves  at  night.  If  properly  trained  and  kept  about  the  fowl  yards  the  dog 
will  not  molest,  annoy,  or  frighten  the  chickens.  Electric  burglar  alarms  are 
sometimes  used  by  poultrymen  in  cities.  When  it  is  found  that  a  dog,  cat, 
skunk,  weasel,  hawk,  or  anything  else,  is  carrying  off  fowls,  chicks,  or  eggs, 
the  keeper  should  give  himself  no  rest  until  he  has  put  a  stop  to  the  proceed- 
ing. It  has  to  be  done  sooner  or  later,  and  it  is  better  to  sit  up  all  night  after 
the  first  raid,  than  to  permit  a  second.  Poison  is  one  of  the  most  effective 
means  of  ridding  a  place  of  pests,  but  must  be  handled  with  the  greatest 
caution. 


POULTRT-CRAFT.  217 


CHAPTER    XV. 


BANTAMS. 

317.  Bantams  May  Be  Made  Profitable. —  Breeders  of  thoroughbred 
fowls  often  find  the  popular  varieties  of  bantams  quite  as  profitable  to  handle 
as  most  varieties  of  large  fowls,  and  though  bantams  are  not  suited  to  market 
poultry  keeping  they  can  often  be  used  to  furnish  eggs  and  some  poultry  for 
a  small  family  living  where  large  fowls  cannot  be  kept.     The  hardier  breeds 
of  bantams  will  thrive  in  very  close  quarters,  and  bantams  of  any  kind  can  be 
kept  on  a  lawn  or  in  a  garden,  without  fear  of  their  damaging  it  as  large  fowls 
would.     As  layers,  bantams  are  like  other  fowls  —  good,  indifferent,  and  bad. 
One  who  keeps  them  for  the  eggs  must  select  and  breed  for  eggs,  and  if  he 
favors  birds  large  for  bantams,  can  get  very  fair  sized  eggs.     For  poultry, 
bantams  can  hardly  be  used  until  well  grown ;  then,  weight  for  weight,  they 
are  equal  to  any  fowls.     Indeed,  there  are  few  varieties  of  large  fowls  that 
make  as  plump  carcasses  as  bantams  do. 

318.  Management   of    Bantams. —  In   a   general  way  the  methods  of 
caring  for  large  fowls  are  applied  also  to  bantams  but  in  a  few  particulars  — 
to  which  attention  will  be  called  in  the  proper  connection  —  some  of  them 
have  to  be  considerably  modified.     Bantams  ought  not  to  be  kept  with  other 
fowls.     Even  when  there  is  no  danger  of  contamination,  the  bantams  suffer 
when  obliged  to  compete  for  food  with  larger,  heavier  fowls,  and  very  often 
the  other  birds  are  spiteful  toward  and  abuse  the  bantams.     The  rules  for 
mating  bantams  are  except  in  one  or  two  cases  the  same  as  for  large  fowls. 
In  general  matings  of  Standard  birds  produce  a  good  percentage  of  Standard 
chicks.        I 

The  prominent  characteristic  of  the  bantam  is,  of  course,  its  diminutive 
size.  In  the  exhibition  room  the  smallest  bird,  other  things  being  equal, 
wins.  If\js  thus  an  advantage  to  an  exhibitor  to  have  his  birds  below 
Standard  weights — provided  other  things  are  equal;  —  that  is  if,  though 
under- weight,! they  are  in  good  condition,  of  typical  shape,  and  have  perfectly 
developed  plumage.  Many  bantam  breeders  in  their  eagerness  to  get  light 
weight  specimens,  produce  birds  which  fail  in  these  most  essential  points. 
To  get  small  bantams  various  means,  such  as  late  hatching,  semi-starving, 
are  frequently  resorted  to;  but  such  methods  do  not  produce  fine,  well 
developed  specimens.  The  principal  factor  in  producing  small  bantams  is 
selection  for  the  breeding  pen  of  the  smallest  obtainable  specimens  that  are 


2l8 


POULTR  r-  CRA  FT. 


good  in  form  and  color.  A  breeder  will  rarely  find  that  he  has  many  such 
birds  under  Standard  weights ;  the  light  weight  birds  nearly  always  failing  in 
shape.  Late  hatching  is  not  desirable.  Early  hatched  chicks  are  likely  to  be 
better  than  those  hatched  late ;  but  chicks  hatched  in  late  May  or  early  June 
generally  turn  out  best.  Hens  of  the  large  breeds  are  not  suitable  for 
hatching  and  rearing  bantam  chicks.  The  best  results  are  obtained  when 
bantam  hens  are  used.  If  it  is  not  practicable  to  use  bantam  hens,  "  scrub" 
hens  of  three  and  four  pounds  weight  should  be  used.  The  bantam  chicks 
being  so  small,  there  is  special  need  of  guarding  them  from  accidents,  and 
the  chicks  of  the  less  hardy  varieties  need  to  be  carefully  kept  from  cold  and 
damp.  They  can  be  fed  much  as  other  chicks  are,  though  they  cannot  eat 


Pig.  85.     Bantams. 

Rose  Combed  Black.  Exhibition  Game. 

Rose  Combed  White.  Sebright.  Cuckoo. 

Cochin.  Rumpless.  Japanese. 

(By  courtesy  of  W.  W.  Clough). 

large  grains  at  an  early  age.  The  best  developed  bantam  chicks  are  obtained 
by  giving  as  much  liberty  as  possible,  and  feeding  no  more  than  is  necessary 
to  keep  them  growing,  avoiding  forcing  on  the  one  hand,  and  stunting  on  the 
other.  Forcing  makes  coarse  specimens ;  stunting  makes  peaked,  scrawny 
ones. 

VARIETIES  OF    BANTAMS   DESCRIBED. 

319.  Game  Bantams. —  Of  these  there  are  eight  Standard  varieties: 
Black  Breasted  Red,  Brown  Red,  Golden  Duckiving,  Silver  Duckiving, 
Red  Pyle,  White,  Black,  and  Birchen,  corresponding  respectively  in  form 


POULTRT-CRAFT.  219 

and  color  to  the  Standard  Exhibition  Games  of  the  same  names.  The 
Standard  weights  for  Game  Bantams  are:  —  cocks,  22  ozs.  ;  cockerels,  20 
ozs.  ;  hens,  20  ozs.  ;  pullets,  18  ozs.  Game  Bantams  are  generally  hardy, 
fair  layers,  fond  of  being  handled  and  petted.  The  Black  Breasted  Red  is 
the  most  common  and  popular  variety,  though  all  the  varieties  mentioned  are 
so  generally  bred  that  they  are  not  anywhere  unfamiliar  to  persons  interested 
in  fancy  fowls. 

Malay  Game  Bantams,  which  resemble  Malay  Games,  are  rare. 

320.     Sebright  Bantams.  —  There  are  two  varieties,  the  Golden  and  the 
Silver,  differing  only  in  the  ground  color  of  the  plumage,  which  is  in  the 

former  a  golden  yellow,  and  in  the  latter  a 
silvery  white.  Each  feather  is  laced  with 
a  narrow  edge  of  black.  Sebright  Bantams 
have  rose  combs,  slate  colored  legs  and  toes. 
A  peculiarity  of  the  breed  is  that  the  males 
are  "  hen  feathered;"  —  that  is,  instead  of 
having  the  flowing  hackle  and  saddle  feathers 
and  abundant  tails,  as  is  usual  in  male  fowls, 
the  Standard  Sebright  Bantam  male  has 
plumage  differing  from  that  of  the  female 
only  in  that  the  two  upper  tail  feathers  may 
be  slightly  curved  at  the  ends.  The  produc- 
tion of  such  plumage  on  males  is  abnormal, 

Fig.  86.   Exhibition  Game  and  White  Crested    and    ^  ^    ^^     the  cage  when  individuals 


White  Polish  Bantams. 

of  one  sex  assume  characters  of  the  opposite 

sex,  the  "best"  Standard  males  are  often  partly  or  wholly  infertile  and 
worthless  as  breeders.  Consequently  the  breeders  of  Sebright  Bantams  often 
find  it  necessary  to  use  in  the  breeding  pens  males  having  plumage  too  much 
like  that  common  to  male  fowls  to  admit  of  their  being  shown  in  the  exhibition 
room.  Sebrights  are  among  the  most  popular  varieties  of  bantams,  and  are 
fairly  hardy. 


321.  Rose  Combed  Bantams. —  Of  these  there  are   two  varieties,  the 
White  and  the  Black,  the  Whites  pure  white,  with  white  or  yellow  legs ;  the 

Blacks  brilliant  black,  with  black  or  dark  lead  colored  legs.  Both  varieties 
are  quite  common,  and  fairly  hardy.  The  Standard  weights  are  the  same 
as  for  Sebrights. 

322.  Booted  White  Bantams. —  All  white,  single  combed,  shanks  and 
outer  toes  heavily  feathered,  prominent  vulture  hocks  ;  weights  as  for  Sebrights. 
This  variety  might  be  mistaken  by  one  not  familiar  with  the  different  breeds, 


2  20  PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 

for  the  White  Cochin.     The  two  have  some  general  resemblances,  but  differ 
essentially  in  size,  shape,  texture  of  plumage,  and  color  of  legs. 

323.  Brahma  Bantams. —  Two  varieties,  Light  and  Dark,  resembling 
respectively  the  large   fowls  of   the    same    names.     These    are    newly  made 
varieties,  not  yet  extensively  bred.     Standard  weights  are  —  cock,  30  ozs. ; 
cockerel,  26  ozs.  ;  hen,  26  ozs. ;  pullet,  24  ozs. 

324.  Cochin  Bantams. —  Four  varieties  :  Buff,  Partridge,    White  and 
Black,  miniatures  of  the  large  Cochins.     The  Standard  weights  are  —  cock, 
30  ozs.  ;  cockerel,  26  ozs. ;  hen,  26  ozs ;  pullet,  24  ozs.     Cochin  Bantams  are 
very  hardy.     The  Buff  variety  is  most  popular,  but  all  are  common  enough 
to  be  well  known.     In  breeding  these  bantams — more  perhaps  than  in  any 
others  —  the   breeder   ought   not   to   try  to  keep   his   birds   below    Standard 
weights,  for  in  the  very  small  birds  it  is  hardly  possible  to  get  good  Cochin 
shape. 

325.  Japanese  Bantams. —  Three  varieties  —  the  Black  Tailed,  which 
are  white  except  the  tail  and  flights ;  the   White,  and  the  Black.     Standard 
weights  are  the  same  as  given  for  Sebrights.     Japanese  Bantams  are  delicate 
and  rare  as  compared  with  some  of  the  other  breeds. 

326.  Polish    Bantams. —  Two   varieties  —  the    White    Crested   White, 
and  the  Buff  Laced,  which  resemble  the  Buff  Laced  Polish  fowls.     Both 
varieties   are   delicate   and    rare.       Standard   weights   are   the    same   as    for 
Sebrights. 


POULTRT'CRAFT.  221 


CHAPTER    XV 


Turkeys. 

327.  The  Turkey  —  the  Farmers'  Fowl.  —  The  turkey  is  peculiarly  a 
fowl  for  the  general  farm.  Market  conditions  and  the  characteristics  of  the 
fowl  combine  to  confine  profitable  turkey  growing  on  a  business  scale  to 
farms  where  the  birds  can  have  an  extensive  foraging  ground.  Turkeys  can 
be,  and  are,  grown  on  small  places,  but  in  very  limited  numbers.  The 
turkeys  produced  elsewhere  than  on  large  farms  hardly  affect  the  trade  either 
in  market  or  breeding  stock. 

The  heaviest  demand  and  best  prices  for  turkeys  come  seasonably  for  the 
farm  poultry  keeper.  The  poults  can  be  hatched  at  the  "  natural"  season, 
and  grown  to  a  salable  maturity  in  time  to  get  the  best  prices  of  the  year. 
This  feature  of  turkey  growing  is  one  of  its  strongest  recommendations  to 
farmers'  wives  and  daughters,  who  are  usually  the  poultry  keepers.  Though 
it  is  open  to  question  whether  there  is  really  as  much  to  be  made  from  turkeys 
as  from  chickens  on  the  farm,  it  seems  plain  that  the  women  on  farms 
usually  think  turkey  growing  more  profitable  than  any  other  branch  of 
poultry  culture,  and  it  is  probably  true  that  the  income  from  turkeys  comes 
easier  than  that  from  chickens.  There  is  greater  satisfaction  in  producing 
something  that  is  marketable  when  the  market  is  at  its  best,  and  will  bring  in 
a  large  lump  sum,  as  a  flock  of  turkeys  will.  Then  the  receipts  from  the 
turkeys  are  a  distinct  addition  to  receipts  from  other  poultry  products.  Tur- 
key growing  need  not  interfere  with  or  curtail  operations  with  poultry. 
Turkeys  forage  further  than  chickens,  and  thus  the  two  kinds  of  fowl  are 
kept  on  the  same  farm  with  little  interference,  the  turkeys  ranging  mostly 
over  an  area  outside  of  that  used  by  the  hens.  In  growing  turkeys,  as  in 
growing  chickens  on  the  farm,  the  flock  can  be  of  a  size  proportionate  to  the 
foraging  ground,  and  the  turkeys  may  be,  after  the  first  few  weeks,  reared  — 
and  sometimes  fattened  for  market  —  on  what  they  pick  for  themselves. 
Even  when  they  require  regular  feeding  and  heavy  feeding  to  fatten,  there  is 
at  least  as  much  profit  in  feeding  grain  to  them  as  to  any  stock  produced  on 
the  farm.  The  production  of  exhibition  and  fine  breeding  stock  is  also  limited 
mostly  to  farmers  who  are  fanciers,  and  to  some  special  poultry  breeders  occu- 
pying large  farms.  The  few  prominent  turkey  breeders  located  on  quite  small 
farms  farm  out  most  of  their  stock. 


223  POULTRY-CRAFT. 

328.  Turkeys  Can   Be   Grown  in  AH  Sections,  —  but  not  in  every 
situation.     Low,  damp  places  and  cold,  heavy  soils  do  not  suit  them.     They 
are  healthiest  and  develop  best  on  rather  high  ground,  and  soils  from  which 
the  water  drains  quickly.     The  bulk  of  the  turkey  crop  —  as  of  the  crop  of 
chicken  products  —  is  produced  in  the  central  west,  where  the  large  grain, 
grass,  and  stock  farms  furnish  unrivalled  foraging  grounds ;  but  there  is  no 
section  of  the  country  where  turkeys  are  not  profitably  raised  by  those  situated 
favorably  for  handling  them.     Exclusive  turkey  farms,  on  the  lines  of  chicken 
and  duck  farms,  are  unknown.     The  nearest  approach  to  anything  of  the  kind 
is  found  in  Rhode  Island,  where  on  some  farms  three  hundred,  four  hundred, 
—  or  even  more  —  turkeys  are  produced  annually. 

329.  Profit  in  Turkeys.  —  It  is  not  easy  to  make  a  satisfactory  estimate 
of  the  profit  from  market  turkeys.     Very  few  growers  keep  accounts.     From 
the  few  accounts  and  close  estimates  which  have  been  made  public,  it  would 
appear  that  the  average  profit  is  about  a  dollar  per  head  —  rather  less  than 
more  —  and  that  the  profit  in  most  sections  where  turkey  growing  is  carried 
on  extensively  does  not  often  vary  much  —  either  way  —  from  the  average. 
Reports  of  the  amounts  "  made  "on  flocks  in  different  sections  indicate  no 
great  differences  in  net  profits  on  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island,  or  Vermont 
turkeys,  which  bring  the  highest  prices  in  the  eastern  markets,  and  western 
turkeys,    for  which    the  grower  receives,   possibly,   only  half    as   much   per 
pound. 

The  profits  on  high  class  stock  are  proportionate  to  the  reputation  of  the 
breeder  and  the  volume  of  his  trade.  It  is  commonly  considered  that  the  pro- 
duction of  turkeys  of  fine  exhibition  and  breeding  quality  is  less  profitable 
than  the  breeding  of  chickens  of  similar  quality. 

330.  Houses  for  Turkeys. — Perhaps  the  commonest  practice  among 
turkey  growers  is  to  allow  —  or  compel  —  their  stock  to  roost  outdoors  in  all 
seasons,  and  through  all  weathers.     This  practice  is  not  limited  to  those  who 
are  indifferent  to  the  welfare  of  their  fowls.     It  obtains  among  progressive 
breeders,  and   is   even  approved  and  recommended  by   some  authorities   on 
turkey  growing.     The  reasons  given  for  continuing  and  sanctioning  a  practice 
condemned  in  every  other  line  of  stock  keeping,  are  various,  but  are  in  gen- 
eral much  the  same  as  those  once   used  by  writers  who  advocated  making 
hens  "  rough  it."  *     But  though  all  too  common,  this  practice  is  by  no  means 

*  NOTE.  —  In  comparison  with  the  methods  of  up  to  date  hen  men,  some  of  the  methods 
common  among  successful  turkey  growers  seem  thriftless — not  to  say  barbarous.  As 
compared  with  current  instruction  relating  to  chickens,  much  of  the  teaching  of  authori- 
ties on  turkey  culture  seems  antiquated.  One  at  all  familiar  with  the  recent  progress  of 
poultry  culture  can  hardly  fail  to  have  observed  the  striking  similarity  between  present 
general  teachings  about  turkeys  and  the  kind  of  instruction  on  matters  relating  to  chick- 
ens which  was  most  in  vogue  twelve  or  fifteen  years  ago :  nor  can  he  fail  to  have  noticed 


POULTRT-CRAFT.  223 

universal.  Many  growers  provide  suitable  buildings  for  both  old  and  young 
turkeys ;  some  turn  them  out  in  summer,  and  house  in  winter ;  some,  while 
leaving  the  turkeys  free  to  roost  outdoors,  provide,  near  the  usual  roosting 
places,  sheltered  perches  to  which  the  fowls  may  go  in  severe  weather.  This 
latter  method  is  unsatisfactory, — is  in  fact  quite  useless,  (except  as  a  sop  to 
the  conscience  of  the  keeper) ,  because  it  is  only  when  a  storm  is  uncommonly 
rough  at  roosting  time  that  turkeys  will  desert  their  usual  perches  for  shelter. 
Some  will  not  do  it  voluntarily  under  any  circumstances. 

Turkeys  certainly  need  shelter  sometimes.  (This  most  of  the  advocates  of 
the  open  air  method  admit) .  To  suppose  that  they  do  not,  is  to  assume  that 
the  laws  of  nutrition  are  reversed  when  applied  to  turkeys  —  in  bad  weather. 
Young  turkeys  in  preparation  for  market,  exposed  to  the  cold  storms  of  fall 
and  early  winter,  cannot  make  the  weights  they  would  if  protected ;  —  it  is 
not  possible.  If  breeding  stock  subjected  to  the  rigors  of  a  northern  winter, 
attains  the  development  or  keeps  the  condition  it  would  if  sheltered  —  which 
is,  to  say  the  least,  very  doubtful  —  it  is  at  increased  cost  for  maintenance. 
Now  it  is  a  principle  —  and  a  fundamental  one — of  profitable  poultry  culture, 
that  the  poultryman  ought  always  to  be  prepared  for  those  contingencies, 
which,  though  the  exact  time  of  their  occurrence  is  uncertain,  he  knows  are 
sure  to  happen.  In  the  matter  of  shelter,  for  instance,  the  wise  poultryman 
provides  such  accommodations,  and  so  habituates  his  fowls  to  use  them,  that 
when  the  weather  is  worst  the  fowls  can  be  kept  comfortable,  and  that  with- 
out the  keeper  being  obliged  to  do  extra  work  under  disagreeable  conditions. 
And  it  is  surely  no  more  than  common  prudence  for  a  turkey  grower  who 
wants  to  make  the  most  of  his  opportunities,  to  provide  suitable  quarters  and 
train  the  birds  to  roost  under  cover,  at  least  through  that  portion  of  the  year 
when  cold  rough  weather  prevails. 

Turkeys  do  not  need  as  warm  houses  as  chickens.  Wherever  the  winter  is 
not  severe,  a  shed  with  front  of  slats  or  strong  wire  netting  is  sufficient.  Even 

that  the  trend  of  progress  and  of  some  of  the  best  teachings  on  turkey  topics  is  toward 
the  best  methods  of  the  chicken  keepers.  That  the  precise  methods  used  for  chickens 
will  ever  be  applied  to  turkeys,  does  not  appear  at  all  probable ;  but  in  whatever  respects 
popular  methods  of  handling  turkeys  are  not  truly  economical  and  humane  to  the  fowls 
and  to  the  keener,  the  changes  already  made  by  a  few  growers  are  sure  to  be  more  widely 
adopted.  Much  of  the  close  adherence  to  old  methods  has  been  due  to  the  prevalent  belief 
that  as  turkeys  are  not  as  completely  domesticated  as  other  fowls,  they  cannot  thrive  unless 
allowed  to  continue  many  of  the  habits  of  their  wild  ancestors.  Treatment  of  them  has 
proceeded  on  the  assumption  that  they  are  essentially  different,  in  nature,  from  other 
domestic  fowls.  This  assumption  is  correct  in  so  far  as  it  asserts  that  turkeys  generally 
now  have  certain  habits,  different  from  those  of  thoroughly  domesticated  fowls,  which 
habits  render  them  less  amenable  to  methods  which  suit  the  keeper ;  but  it  is  wrong  in 
that  it  presumes  that  these  habits  cannot  be  modified.  The  turkey  is  undoubtedly  capa- 
ble of  becoming  as  completely  domesticated  as  the  hen  (chicken),  and  it  is  highly  proba- 
ble that  such  modification  of  habits  would  be  followed  by  increased  prolificacy  —  a  most 
desirable  improvement. 


224  PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 

in  the  coldest  parts  of  this  country,  they  will  be  contentedly  comfortable  in  a 
fairly  tight,  but  unlined  building.  A  shed  or  house  for  turkeys  should  be 
somewhat  higher  than  for  chickens.  The  roost  should  be  placed  further  from 
the  ground.  The  droppings  should  not  be  allowed  to  accumulate  beneath 
the  roosts. 

331.  Yards  for  Turkeys. —  As  may  be  inferred  from  what  has  been  said 
of  the  conditions  of  profitable  turkey  growing,  turkeys  are  rarely  yarded. 
Some  breeders  yard  the  breeding  stock  during  the  breeding  season ;   some 
confine  the  laying  hens  until  after  the  eggs   have  been  laid  each  day,   thus 
preventing  them  from  laying  in  hidden  or  distant  nests.     This  latter  method 
recommends  itself  to  those  so  situated  that  the  breeding  stock  can  have  liberty. 
It  is  absurd  that  so  many  turkey  keepers  should  spend  hour  after  hour  and 
trudge  many  rough  miles  in  locating  the  nests  of  hen  turkeys  at  liberty  to  nest 
where  they  please.     The  enclosure  for  laying  turkeys  shut  up  only  a  part  of 
each  day,  need  not  be  large.     A  yard  fifty  by  one  hundred  feet  will  do  for  a 
flock  of  a  dozen  to  twenty  hens.     A  five-foot  fence  of  woven  wire  or  wire 
netting  will  keep  the  hens  in  bounds.     Indeed,  heavy  hens  will  hesitate  long 
before  attempting  a  four-foot  picket  fence,  and  often  refuse  to  try  it. 

332.  Keeping  Turkeys  in  Confinement.  —  While  for  business  turkey 
keeping  fairly  large  range  must  be  considered  a  necessity,  a  person  who  wishes 
to  keep  and  rear  a  very  few  turkeys  for  pleasure,  may  do  so  on  quite  a  small 
piece  of  ground  —  on  a  village  lot  of,  say,  an  acre.     The  semi-confinement  is 
not  necessarily  injurious.     The  task  of  keeping  them  within  bounds  will  be 
easy,  or  difficult,  according  to  the  individual  dispositions  of  the  fowls  and  the 
relative  force  of  attractions  inside  and  outside  of  the  home  grounds.     Keeping 
them  healthy  is  principally  a  matter  of  keeping  their  quarters  clean,  and  using 
good  judgment  in  feeding.     Old  birds  are  much  easier  to  handle  than  young 
ones.     If  there  is  nothing  special  to  induce  the  old  ones  to  leave  home,  they 
remain  there  apparently  well  contented.     The  young  ones,  unless  prevented, 
will   wander   orT  as    soon    as   they   are   able.     They  can,   however,  be  kept 
yarded,  fed  about  as  chickens  are,  and  make  good  growth,  develop  into  really 
fine  specimens. 

Handling  turkeys  under  such  conditions  furnishes  amusement  until  the 
novelty  wears  off.  To  one  interested  in  such  matters,  the  experiment  is 
interesting  as  showing  how  far  and  in  how  short  a  time,  the  habits  of  the 
fowls  can  be  modified.  But  not  many  who  may  try  this  kind  of  turkey  keep- 
ing will  continue  it  beyond  a  second  season,  for  it  would  hardly  be  possible 
to  undertake  anything  in  the  poultry  keeping  line  that  would  give  as  meager 
results  for  the  expense  and  trouble  incurred. 

333.  Kinds  of   Turkeys. — The   Standard   recognizes   six   varieties   of 
turkeys,    classifying    them    as    sub-divisions    of    one    breed.     The    so-called 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


225 


common  turkeys  are  mostly  mixtures  of  the  varieties,  or  stock  of  pure  varieties 
so  much  deteriorated  that  the  variety  characteristics  are  no  longer  distinctive. 
The  wild  turkeys  still  found  in  some  parts  of  the  country  are  of  the  same 
species  as  the  domestic  birds,  breed  quite  freely  with  them,  and  the  introduction 
of  wild  blood  has  been  a  favored  method  of  restoring  vigor  of  degenerate  stock. 

BRONZE  TURKEYS  — 
are  the  largest,  hardiest, 
most  popular,  and  most 
profitable  variety.  Stand- 
ard weights  are :  adult 
cock,  36  Ibs. ;  yearling 
cock,  33  Ibs.  ;  cockerel, 
25  Ibs. ;  hen,  20  Ibs. ; 
pullet,  16  Ibs.  Speci- 
mens exceeding  these 
weights  are  not  un- 
common, but  the  heavy 
weight  birds  are  bred 
mostly  by  and  for  fan- 
ciers. Bronze  hens  are 
reputed  poorer  layers 
than  those  of  the  other 
varieties  and  common 

Fig.  87.     Bronze  Turkeys.  hens 

NARRAGANSETT  TURKEYS  —  are  second  in  size,  and,  probably,  in  popu- 
larity. The  Standard  weights  are  :  cock,  30  Ibs. ;  cockerel,  20  Ibs. ;  hen,  18 
Ibs.;  pullet,  12  Ibs.  In  color  they  are  gray  —  the  ground  of  the  plumage 
being  black,  and  each  feather  ending  in  a  steel  gray  band  edged  with  black. 

SLATE,  BUFF  AND  BLACK  TURKEYS  —  should  be  uniformly  of  the  colors 
which  give  the  varieties  their  names,  but  in  the  first  two,  specimens  good  in 
color  are  quite  rare.  Standard  weights 
are :  cock,  27  Ibs. ;  cockerel,  18  Ibs.  ; 
hen,  1 8  Ibs. ;  pullet,  12  Ibs.  These  varie- 
ties are  not  popular,  but  are  pretty  well 
distributed. 


WHITE  HOLLAND  TURKEYS  —  are  the 
smallest  variety.  Standard  weights  are  : 
cock,  26  Ibs. ;  cockerel,  16  Ibs. ;  hen,  16 
Ibs.;  pullet,  10  Ibs.  In  some  sections 
they  rank  next  the  Bronze  in  popularity. 
Turkeys  called  "  Mammoth  White  "  have  been  exhibited  and  advertised.  These 
are  generally  supposed  to  have  been  produced  by  breeding  White  Hollands 
to  white  sports  of  the  Bronze  variety. 


Fig.  88.     White  Holland  Turkeys. 


226  POULTRT-CRAFT. 

334.  About  Breeding  Stock.  —  The  principles  of  breeding  as  given  in 
Chapter  X.,  f  193 — 213,  apply  generally  to  turkeys.     A  few  points,  however, 
require  special  mention  here.     In  breeding  exhibition  stock  size   is  of  first 
importance,  markings  next :  big  framed  birds  as  near  Standard  in  color  as  they 
can  be  got,  are  most  desirable.     To  produce  quick  growing  market  turkeys 
small  boned  plump  specimens  are  used.     Old  birds,  if  in  good  condition, — 
not  too  fat,  —  are  the  best  for  breeding.     The  male  turkey  does  not  attain  full 
growth  until  his  third  year.     Birds  of  either  sex  may  be  used  for  breeding 
until  eight  or  ten  years  old. 

One  male  to  ten  or  twelve  females,  is  the  usual  rule,  though  a  male  is  some- 
times used  with  twenty  or  more  females  with  most  satisfactory  results  as  to 
fertility  of  eggs  and  vigor  of  offspring.  A  single  impregnation  generally  fer- 
tilizes all  the  eggs  in  a  litter,  and  sometimes  all  laid  during  a  season. 

335.  Management   of   Laying   Turkeys.  —  The   hen   turkeys   usually 
begin  laying  in  March  or  April,  the  period  varying  with  the  latitude,  and,  to 
some  extent,  according  to  the  season.     If  the  hens  are  yarded,  nests  are  distrib- 
uted about  the  enclosure,  sometimes  in  coops,*  boxes  or  barrels ;  sometimes 
heaps  of  straw  or  hay  are  placed  in  convenient  half-concealed  places  in  corners 
or  among  shrubbery.     When  the  turkeys  are  not  confined  at  all  it  is  still  a  good 
plan  to  place  nests  near  the  dwelling  house,  and,  if  the  hens  are  disposed  to 
wander  off,    prevent  it   until  they  have    laid  in   one  of  the  nests    provided. 
Having  used  a  nest  once,  they  rarely  desert  it. 

If  at  liberty  the  breeding  turkeys  find  a  variety  of  food,  and  need  be  fed  only 
with  grain.  Many  growers  feed  corn  only,  but  wheat  and  oats,  or  a  mixture  of 
corn,  wheat,  and  oats,  is  considered  better.  Some  soak  the  grain  thoroughly 
before  feeding.  Some  feed  a  mash  f  in  the  morning  and  hard  grain  at  night. 
If  turkeys  are  yarded  during  the  laying  period,  a  variety  of  food  must  be  fur- 
nished —  mixed  grains,  green  stuff,  animal  food,  shell,  grit,  and  plenty  of 
'water. 

As  a  rule  turkeys  are  not  very  prolific.  Many  hens  lay  not  more  than  eight 
or  ten  eggs  before  going  broody.  Not  many  lay  more  than  seventeen  or 
eighteen  in  the  first  litter.  Eighteen  or  twenty  eggs  in  the  season  is  probably 
the  average,  though  an  uncommonly  good  layer  may  lay  twice  as  many.  As 

*  NOTE.  —  A  grower  who  uses  coops  in  preference  to  either  barrels  or  boxes  makes  the 
coops  three  feet  square  on  the  ground,  two  and  one-half  feet  high  in  front,  and  one  and 
one-half  feet  high  in  the  back,  with  board  roof,  and  a  good  sized  opening  in  the  front  for 
a  door. 

t  NOTE.  — In  regard  to  feeding  mashes  to  turkeys,  it  should  be  said  that  authorities  are 
mostly  against  it.  Nevertheless,  many  people  do  feed  mashes  with  the  best  of  results. 
The  trouble  with  those  whose  birds  go  out  of  condition  when  fed  mashes,  is  that  their 
mash  feeds  are  wrong  either  in  composition,  consistency,  or  quantity  fed, — sometimes 
in  all.  It  is  worth  noting  that  one  authority,  while  roundly  condemning  mashes,  highly 
commends  soaked  grain,  which  is  to  all  intents  and  purposes  a  soft  —  or  mash  — food. 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT.  227 

the  hens  lay  so  few  eggs,  it  is  the  common  practice  not  to  allow  them  to  sit 
until  they  have  laid  two  litters  of  eggs.  To  avoid  breaking  or  chilling,  and 
also  to  induce  the  hens  to  lay  longer,  the  eggs  are  removed  from  the  nests 
daily,  and  if  there  is  danger  of  the  hens  deserting  their  nests  because  of  the 
removal  of  the  eggs,  a  few  chicken  hens'  eggs  are  placed  in  the  nest. 

336.  Hatching  Turkeys.  —  The  natural  methods  of  hatching  and  brooding 
are  used  almost  exclusively  in  turkey  culture.  A  few  growers  hatch  the  first 
eggs  in  incubators,  and  brood  the  poults  in  brooder  houses  (with  large  runs) 
or  in  outdoor  brooders.  Though  those  who  have  tried  this  have  been  fairly 
successful,  artificial  methods,  as  applied  to  turkey  growing,  must  be  considered 
as  still  in  the  early  experimental  stage. 

Many  turkeys  are  hatched  and  brooded  by  chicken  hens,  (most  growers  use 
them  to  hatch  the  eggs  laid  first),  but  the  general  opinion  is  that  the  young 
turkeys  never  do  so  well  as  when  reared  by  turkey  hens.  * 

When  chicken  hens  are  used  to  incubate  the  turkey  eggs,  the  nests  are  made 
and  the  hens  handled  just  as  if  for  hatching  chickens.  Nine  to  eleven  turkey 
eggs  are  enough  for  a  hen.  When  turkey  hens  are  used,  they  must,  if  wild, 
be  set  on  the  nests  where  they  had  laid.  If  gentle  they  can  be  moved  if  the 
keeper  so  desires,  the  same  precautions  being  taken  as  are  described  for 
chickens  in  ^[235.  A  turkey  hen  can  cover  fifteen  to  twenty  eggs. 

The  period  of  incubation  for  turkey  eggs  is  twenty-eight  days.  It  is  some- 
times prolonged  to  thirty  days.  As  the  eggs  are  almost  uniformly  fertile, 
testing  is  not  as  necessary  as  with  chicken  eggs,  and  as  a  rule  the  only  test 
made  is  three  or  four  days  prior  to  hatching,  when  the  eggs  are  put  in  warm 
water,  and  only  those  that  "  kick,"  which  contain  live  poults,  returned  to  the 
nests. 

When  the  poults  are  hatching,  the  commonest  practice  is  to  remove  the 
first  hatched,  wrap  them  in  flannel,  and  keep  in  a  warm  place,  and  thus  relieve 

*NOTE. —  The  relative  advantages  of  using  chicken  and  turkey  hens,  are  thus  neatly 
summed  up  by  Mrs.  Hargrave,  in  the  Reliable  Poultry  Journal : — "I  have  found  the 
advantages  of  turkey  hens  as  mothers  as  follows  :  They  are  more  quiet  with  little  ones  ; 
are  better  protectors  from  hawks  and  animals ;  will  not  wean  the  turkeys  so  soon  as 
chicken  hens  ;  are  kinder  to  little  turkeys  other  than  their  own  broods  ;  are  better  foragers  ; 
will  take  their  little  ones  to  the  range  where  they  can  pick  insects,  grass  seeds,  etc. ;  the 
little  ones  are  not  subject  to  so  many  lice  as  when  running  with  a  chicken  hen.  The 
main  objection  to  turkey  hens  is,  they  are  troublesome  about  coming  to  the  accustomed 
roosting  place  with  the  brood  and  getting  them  sheltered  for  the  night. 

•'  Advantages  of  a  chicken  hen  are  that  the  little  turkeys  will  be  more  tame  as  a  rule 
than  when  mothered  by  the  turkey,  and  the  hen  always  takes  her  brood  to  the  coop  in  the 
evening  and  puts  them  to  roost ;  but  as  a  hen  is  more  restless,  she  keeps  the  little  ones 
on  the  move  the  first  few  days,  when  they  ought  to  be  very  quiet.  This  can  be  overcome 
by  tying  her  or  fastening  her  in  the  coop.  *  *  *  I  endeavor  to  set  eggs  under  a 
turkey  hen,  and  some  chicken  hens  at  the  same  time,  so  when  the  chicken  hen  weans  her 
brood  they  will,  with  a  little  effort  on  your  part,  take  up  with  the  turkey  hen  and  her 
brood,  and  all  go  on  the  range  together." 


228  POULTRT-CRAFT. 

the  crowded  condition  of  the  nest,  and  prevent  the  little  ones  being  trampled. 
Some  of  the  best  growers,  however,  advise  letting  the  turkey  hen  alone  until 
she  brings  the  brood  from  the  nest.  This  method  is  probably  the  better  one 
to  use  with  hens  not  accustomed  to  being  handled,  or  of  vicious  dispositions. 

337.  The  Care  of  Young  Poults. —  The  young  turkeys  will  not  eat  for 
twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours  after  hatching ;  hence  no  food  need  be  offered 
them  the  first  day.     The   mother  should  be  fed.     If  the   nest  in  which  the 
poults  were  hatched  is  such  and  so  situated  that  a  small  pen  can  be  made  in 
front  of  it,  the  brood  can  remain  there  for  some  days ;  if  not,  they  should  be 
removed  to  a  suitable  coop  —  one  with  board  bottom  being  preferable  —  with 
pen  attached.     The  pen   for   a  brood  of  turkeys  should  be   made  of  boards 
twelve  to  sixteen  inches  wide,  set  on  edge,  and  enclosing  a  space  about  eight 
feet  one   way  by  twelve   to  sixteen  the  other.     To  this  pen  they  should  be 
confined  for  a  week  or  ten  days  —  until  they  are  strong  enough  to  run  about. 
If  the  pen  cannot  be  placed  on  grass  land,  green  food  should  be  provided  from 
the  start,  for  little  turkeys  seem  to  need  green  food  about  as  soon  as  they  need 
anything,  and  suffer  if  they  do  not  get  it.     Grit  and  charcoal  should  be  pro- 
vided.    Lice  must  be    fought  just   as  on   little  chicks.     Dampness   is  to  be 
avoided  by  keeping  the  coop  dry,  by  keeping  the  poults  in  the  pen, —  or  if 
the  pen  is  on  grass,  in  the  coops  —  while  the  dew  is  on  the  grass,  and  by 
getting  them  under  cover  before  rain  storms. 

While  the  young  turkeys  are  confined  to  the  pens,  these  should  be  moved  as 
often  as  necessary  to  new  ground.  The  coops  should  be  kept  scrupulously 
clean.  When  five  or  six  weeks  old  they  may  be  allowed  to  range  freely,  but 
still  need  watching  when  severe  storms  threaten,  and  to  insure  their  being 
home  at  night.  A  great  advantage  in  giving  an  evening  feed,  even  when  it  is 
not  really  needed,  is  that  it  induces  the  turkeys  to  come  home  regularly,  and 
saves  the  trouble  of  hunting  them  up.  At  six  to  eight  weeks  of  age  the  poults 
begin  to  roost,  and  roosts  placed  three  or  four  feet  from  the  ground  should  be 
provided,  either  under  cover  or  where  they  have  the  partial  protection  of  trees 
or  buildings. 

From  the  time  they  "  shoot  the  red,"  that  is,  from  the  time  that  color  begins 
to  develop  on  the  head  and  throat,  turkeys  become  hardier,  and  if  their  range 
is  good,  need  little  care  beyond  what  is  necessary  to  protect  them  from  their 
natural  enemies,  and  to  prevent  their  becoming  too  wild. 

338.  Feeding   Turkeys   from    Shell    to    Market. — REMARK. —  The 
rations  given  here  are  those  used  by  successful  turkey  growers.     It  will  be 
observed  that  good  results  are  secured  from  quite  different  systems  of  feeding. 
Differences  in  systems  may  be  due  sometimes  to  differences  in  circumstances  ; 
but  as  a  rule  they  depend  more  on  the  keeper  than  on  conditions.     The  fact 
that  some  growers  are  successful  with  very  simple  rations,  shows  that  much 
of  the  work  done  by  those  who  furnish  more  elaborate  bills  of  fare  is  super- 


POULTRT-CRAFT.  229 

fluous.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  to  be  observed  that  not  a  few  who  succeed 
when  they  fuss  a  great  deal  with  chickens  or  turkeys,  fail  utterly  if  they 
attempt  more  economical  methods. 

(1).  Ration  for  Young  Turkeys. — (CRANGLE). —  "After  about  thirty-six  hours 
old,  or  after  the  hen  leaves  her  nest,  we  feed  for  three  or  four  meals,  equal  parts  of  hard 
boiled  eggs  and  stale  bread.  After  that  mostly  stale  bread  moistened  with  milk.  For 
two  or  three  weeks  we  give  curdled  milk  to  drink.  After  two  weeks  we  mix  a  little  red 
pepper  with  the  bread  twice  a  week." 

(2).  Ration  for  Young  Turkeys.— (CURTISS).—  "  Our  first  feed  is  bread  and  milk, 
with  the  milk  so  pressed  out  that  the  bread  will  crumble.  This  is  fed  for  the  first  two 
weeks,  after  which  the  feed  is  gradually  changed  to  milk  curd  and  meal,  one-half  part 
each,  and  a  little  cracked  corn  is  given  at  night." 

(3).  Ration  for  Young  Turkeys  on  Good  Range.— (Mrs.  MACKEY).— "The  first 
feed  I  give  is  milk  curd,  with  onion  tops  and  tongue  or  pepper  grass  cut  very  fine 
seasoned  with  black  pepper.  I  give  this  morning,  noon,  and  night.  It  is  a  mistake  to 
feed  very  often  or  too  much  while  they  are  young.  If  poults  are  fed  three  times  a  day 
from  the  time  they  are  hatched  until  they  are  grown,  they  are  fed  often  enough.  Yet 
they  must  have  something  to  pick  all  the  time,  hence  I  would  advise  that  they  be  kept  in 
a  grass  yard  where  the  grass  is  kept  low. 

"  As  they  grow  older  I  add  other  things  to  the  food.  Table  scraps  are  splendid  for 
them.  If  I  have  infertile  incubator  eggs  I  boil  them  and  mix  with  the  other  food,  but 
never  use  fresh  eggs,  simply  because  I  do  not  consider  it  necessary.  I  give  milk  instead 
of  drinking  water  when  it  is  plentiful.  I  keep  grit  constantly  before  them.  Wheat  is 
one  of  the  finest  feeds  for  young  turkeys.  Cracked  corn  is  splendid  when  they  are  older. 
My  rule  has  been  to  mix  grains  of  wheat  in  the  food  from  the  first,  so  that  when  they  are 
old  enough  to  change  from  curd  to  grain  it  will  not  be  so  hard  to  change  foods." 

(4).  Rations  From  Shell  to  Market. — (Mrs.  HARGRAVE). —  "I  feed  poults  every 
two  hours  until  about  ten  days  old,  giving  stale  light  bread  softened  in  sweet  milk  (or 
water),  squeezed  dry,  mixed  with  hard  boiled  eggs,  including  shells,  finely  broken.  This 
food  is  alternated  with  bread  and  clabber  cheese,  oat  flake  and  egg,  or  cheese  seasoned 
with  a  little  salt  and  pepper.  After  the  little  ones  are  about  a  week  old  I  begin  mixing  a 
little  whole  or  cracked  wheat,  Indian  corn,  Kaffir  corn,  or  millet  with  the  cooked  food, 
and  thus  they  learn  to  eat  grain.  Always  try  to  feed  no  more  than  they  will  eat  up  clean 
each  time.  When  they  are  about  a  week  old  I  begin  to  drop  the  white  bread,  and  give 
them  instead  what  I  call  a  brown  light  bread  made  the  same  as  white  bread,  using  one- 
half  white  flour  (a  cheap  grade  will  do)  and  the  other  half  about  equal  parts  of  shorts 
and  bran,  with  a  handful  or  two  of  corn  meal.  The  meal  makes  it  crumble  easily.  The 
bread  should  be  allowed  to  dry  for  a  day  or  two  before  feeding ;  if  fed  fresh  it  may  choke 
the  poults.  I  gradually  drop  the  white  bread  and  eggs,  and  feed  instead  the  brown  bread 
and  cheese.  When  about  six  weeks  old  they  have  become  accustomed  to  the  grain  food, 
which  since  they  were  three  weeks  old  has  been  kept  by  them  in  troughs,  in  coops  so 
constructed  that  the  little  turkeys  can  get  in  and  the  older  fowls  are  kept  out.  By  the 
time  the  poults  are  nine  or  ten  weeks  old  I  have  dropped  the  soft  or  cooked  feed  to  once 
or  twice  per  day.  By  September  the  older  poults  are  dependent  upon  grain  food  and 
range.  For  fattening  I  had  good  results  with  a  mixture  of  grains  proportioned  as 
follows  :  —  two  bushels  whole  corn,  two  bushels  cracked  corn,  one  bushel  oats,  one 
bushel  Kaffir  corn." 


230  PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 

(5).  An  All  Corn  Ration. — (CUSHMAN). —  "  Successful  Rhode  Island  growers  as  a 
rule  feed  their  turkeys  from  start  to  finish  on  northern  white  flint  corn,  which  they  grow 
themselves.  They  take  great  pains  to  feed  nothing  but  well  seasoned  old  corn,  because 
they  have  found  that  new  corn  causes  bowel  trouble.  Turkeys  not  only  like  northern 
flint  corn  best,  and  fatten  best  on  it,  but  it  makes  their  flesh  more  tender,  juicy  and 
delicious.  That  given  the  little  ones  is  coarsely  ground,  and  mixed  with  sweet  or  sour 
milk,  or  made  into  bread  that  is  moistened  with  milk.  This  is  gradually  mixed  with 
cracked  corn,  which  when  they  are  about  eight  weeks  old,  is  fed  clear  or  mixed  with  sour 
milk.  In  the  fall  whole  corn  is  given.  After  June  ist  those  at  full  liberty  are  usually 
fed  but  twice  daily.  They  are  hunted  up  and  fed  in  the  fields,  that  they  may  stay  away 
from  the  farmyard,  and  outbuildings.  Many  give  the  turkeys  no  food  from  August  ist 
until  cool  weather.  They  get  their  own  living  until  they  come  up  from  the  fields  in 
September  or  October.  Upon  the  approach  of  cold  weather  they  come  to  the  house  to  be 
fed,  and  thereafter  roam  but  little. 

"To  fatten  them  for  Thanksgiving,  they  are  fed  in  November  all  the  whole  corn  they 
will  eat  three  times  per  day.  It  is  not  necessary  to  coop  them.  The  full  feeding  causes 
them  to  rest  and  sun  themselves.  Dough  is  not  much  used  for  fattening  in  Rhode  Island. 
One  grower  who  gives  it  every  morning,  and  whole  corn  at  night,  mixes  condition 
powder  with  the  dough,  and  finds  it  causes  them  to  eat  more  and  gain  faster.  Some 
raisers  give  a  little  new  corn  mixed  with  the  old  at  this  time,  but  most  consider  it  safer 
to  feed  clear  old  corn.  It  is  not  best  to  heavily  feed  turkeys  that  are  to  be  held  for  a  later 
market,  or  those  to  be  kept  over  for  breeding." 

339.  The  Market  for  Turkeys. —  The  heaviest  demand  for  turkeys 
comes  at  the  winter  holiday  season.  The  bulk  of  the  crop  is  marketed  in 
about  two  months.  Usually  the  best  prices  of  the  year  are  obtained  for 
"  Thanksgiving  turkeys."  Through  the  remainder  of  the  year  there  is  a 
limited  demand,  and  it  will  happen  once  in  a  while  that  prices  are  as  good 
in  the  late  winter  as  at  any  earlier  time.  It  would  be  no  object  for  the  grower 
to  hold  marketable  turkeys  over  the  period  of  best  demand,  in  expectation  of 
better  prices ;  but  good  prices  in  February  and  March  may  give  him  better 
profit  on  any  late  turkeys  he  may  happen  to  have. 

At  some  of  the  eastern  summer  resorts  there  has  lately  arisen  a  demand  for 
turkey  broilers,  ten  or  twelve  weeks  old.  At  the  prices  obtained,  growers 
near  these  resorts  may  find  it  as  profitable  to  sell  the  turkeys  at  that  age  as  to 
mature  them  for  the  winter  trade.  This  demand  is  confined  to  a  very  few 
places,  and  it  is  as  yet  impossible  to  say  whether  it  is  likely  to  continue  and 
become  more  general. 

The  description  given  in  ^[  276  of  the  kind  of  chickens  in  demand,  applies 
also  (with  some  slight  changes  which  immediately  suggest  themselves),  to 
turkeys.  The  popular  demand  is  for  medium  to  small  turkeys.  During 
Thanksgiving  week  twelve  to  fifteen  pound  turkeys  command  the  best  prices ; 
but  good  stock  of  ten  pounds  (or  even  less ;  the  buyer  finds)  weight  brings 
good  prices.  Very  large  birds  —  as  is  the  case  in  all  kinds  of  poultry  — 
go  mostly  to  the  hotel  and  restaurant  trade,  and  do  not  bring  as  good 
prices  as  stock  of  the  same  quality  in  the  weights  required  for  the  family 
trade. 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT.  231 

340.  Preparing  for  Market  and  Selling. —  The  information  given  in 
Chapter  XII.,  in  regard  to  marketing  poultry,  (see  ^^  269 — 271,  278 — 289), 
applies  generally  to  turkeys.     There   are,  however,   a  few  points  deserving 
special  mention. 

The  turkey  grower  ought  always  to  reserve  as  many  of  his  best  devel- 
oped birds  as  he  needs  to  replace  breeding  stock,  or  for  his  trade  in  breed- 
ing stock,  if  he  carries  on  that  trade.  There  is  often  a  strong  temptation 
to  market  the  best  birds  when  prices  are  best,  and  trust  to  the  later  birds 
developing  in  time  to  be  sold  or  used  as  breeders.  This  is  bad  policy,  and  has 
doubtless  done  more  than  any  other  one  thing  to  deteriorate  flocks  of  turkeys. 

It  is  very  important  to  prevent  the  turkeys  being  frightened  or  bruised  when 
caught  for  killing.  A  bruised  carcass  does  not  bring  the  price  a  perfect  one 
does.  The  method  of  catching  birds  that  have  not  been  sheltered  is  thus 
described  by  Cushman  : — 

"  The  usual  plan  is  to  get  the  birds  into  a  barn  or  carriage  shed,  and  shut  them  in.  In 
order  to  do  this,  they  are  fed  for  a  long  time  in  front  of,  or  just  within  the  place  where 
they  are  to  be  caught.  Later,  the  feed  is  placed  within  the  building,  and  they  become  so 
familiar  with  it  that  they  are  unsuspicious  when  within.  When  they  are  to  be  caught, 
the  doors  of  the  building  are  suddenly  closed ;  or  a  covered  yard  of  wire  netting  is  built 
in  front  of  the  building  and  closed  when  all  are  in.  Usually  when  they  find  they  are 
confined  they  become  frightened,  and  fly  back  and  forth,  or  huddle  up  in  corners.  *  *  * 
To  overcome  this  drawback,  certain  raisers  have  improved  the  usual  makeshift  catching^ 
place  by  building  a  long,  low,  dark  pen  back  of  the  barn  or  shed.  This  pen  extends 
alongside  of  the  building,  and  is  at  right  angles  with  the  entrance  to  it,  and  at  the  extreme 
end  is  about  two  feet  high.  Up  to  the  time  of  their  being  caught,  the  end  is  left  open, 
and  the  birds  frequently  find  their  way  through  it.  When  they  are  to  be  caught,  only 
what  the  pen  will  comfortably  take  are  driven  in.  They  do  not  discover  that  the  end  is 
closed  until  it  is  too  late  to  turn  back.  The  turkeys  that  are  not  to  be  caught,  are  first 
driven  away ;  otherwise  they  may  be  alarmed,  and  become  unmanageable.  No  turkey 
that  is  thus  caught,  and  has  learned  the  mysteries  of  the  trap  is  ever  allowed  to  escape, 
or  its  suspicions  would  be  communicated  to  the  others.  When  shut  in  this  pen  they  are 
quiet,  and  when  a  man  goes  to  catch  them,  there  is  no  struggle;  he  simply  reaches  out 
and  takes  them  by  the  legs.  The  pen  is  too  dark  and  narrow  for  them  to  fly,  and  too 
low  for  them  to  crowd  one  upon  another." 

341 .  Selling  Exhibition  and  Breeding  Stock. —  Preparing  for  Exhi- 
bition.—  A  breeder  of  fine  turkeys  who  does  not  also  breed  other  fine  poul- 
try, is  likely  to  find  it  hard  to  sell  them  profitably,  except  what  a  local  trade 
will  take.     Ordinarily  the   trade  will    not   be    large    enough,   or   the   prices 
obtained  high  enough  to  warrant  advertising  for  turkeys  exclusively. 

With  many  exhibitors  preparation  for  exhibition  consists  simply  in  taking 
the  bird  from  the  range  to  the  exhibition  coop.  If  the  birds  are  to  show 
themselves  to  advantage,  though,  they  should  be  accustomed  to  the  coop  and 
to  being  handled  and  inspected  before  going  to  the  show  room. 

342.  Diseases  of  Turkeys. —  Doctoring  sick  turkeys  is  mostly  unprofit- 
able business.     It  does  not  pay  to  attempt  it  except  under  conditions  as  stated 


232  PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 

for  chickens  in  ^310.     Turkeys  are  affected  by  many  of  the  same  diseases  as 

chickens,  and  by  a  few  which  are  either  peculiar  to  the  turkey  or  attack  it  in 

a  different  form. 

Diseases  most  prevalent  among  and  disastrous  to  turkeys,  are  :  — 
Blackhead  —  which  has  been  long  common  and  troublesome  in  the  east, 

and  frequently  appears  in  other  sections.     According  to  Cushman : 

**  It  is  an  infectious  liver  disease,  similar  in  its  nature  to  human  dysentery.  The 
disease  takes  its  name  from  the  fact  that  turkeys  of  a  certain  age,  when  affected,  look 
shrunken,  pinched,  and  purple  about  the  head.  Turkeys  having  the  disease  probably 
affect  the  land  they  run  upon.  The  organisms  are  present  in  their  excrement,  and  if 
taken  in  with  food  or  water,  may  produce  the  disease  in  other  turkeys.  Sick  birds 
should  be  killed  and  burned  or  deeply  buried.  Buildings,  coops  and  feeding  and  drinking 
vessels  which  they  may  have  contaminated,  should  be  disinfected.  Birds  once  having  this 
trouble,  even  if  they  have  apparently  recovered,  may  still  not  be  free  from  it,  and  be  able 
to  scatter  infecting  material.  It  is  therefore  not  best  to  keep  specimens  that  have  ever 
been  affected.  Take  great  pains  to  clear  out  the  sick  from  both  young  and  old,  and  then 
if  it  is  possible,  change  the  well  ones  to  new  ground.  Some  turkeys  resist  infection 
where  others  succumb  to  it.  Doubtless  some  have  such  vigor  and  power  that  they  over- 
come or  destroy  infection  if  it  reaches  them. 

"  Little  turkeys  are  most  susceptible.  They  are  infected  early  in  life,  and  the  disease 
develops  fast  or  slow  according  to  how  numerous  the  organisms  are,  or  to  the  strength 
of  the  turkey.  Wet,  stormy  weather  aggravates  the  disease.  Their  feathers  look  rough  ; 
they  have  diarrhoea,  with  bright  yellow  excrement ;  and  they  weakly  drag  one  foot  after 
the  other  for  some  time  before  they  die.  Here  (in  Rhode  Island)  they  usually  die  in  the 
latter  part  of  July,  early  in  August,  and  at  the  beginning  of  cold  weather. 

"  In  some  cases  both  caeca  are  affected,  in  others  but  one,  or  a  part  of  one.  Those 
having  but  a  small  part  of  the  liver  invaded  may  live  through  the  winter,  and  not  die 
until  spring. 

"Prevention  is  possible,  but  cure  is  difficult.  By  breeding  them  to  secure  great  vigor, 
by  feeding  to  counteract  any  tendency  to  diarrhoea,  and  by  giving  preventive  treatment 
upon  the  slightest  symptoms  of  abnormal  looseness,  much  may  be  done  to  help  them 
resist  this  disease  if  they  are  exposed  to  it. 

"  A  tonic  and  stimulant  for  the  liver  and  bowels  will  help  prevent  the  disease ;  confine- 
ment and  over-feeding  favor  it.  Pepper  and  ginger,  and  something  sour  are  indicated  as 
well  as  an  astringent.  Sick  turkeys  sometimes  recover  after  they  can  eat  all  the  acorns 
they  want ;  they  administer  the  astringent  themselves.  One  beginner,  after  losing  many 
little  turkeys,  reports  that  he  cured  a  lot  in  two  weeks  by  giving  them  a  saturated  solution 
of  epsom  salts  in  milk  to  drink,  and  nothing  but  grass  to  eat." 

Colds  and  Roup  —  see  f  313. 

Gape  Worms  —  866^313. 

Rheumatism  —  see  IF  313. 

Tape  Worms  —  are  very  common  in  turkeys,  and  often  kill  whole  flocks  of 
young  ones.  Freshly  powdered  kuosso  is  a  highly  recommended  remedy. 
Tansy  and  pumpkin  seeds  are  also  recommended.  See  also  IF 3 13. 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT.  233 


CHAPTER    XVII. 


DUCKS. 

343.  Introductory. —  The  duck  business  as  carried  on  by  "  duck  farm- 
ers," usually  combines  the  growing  of  "  green  "  *  ducks  for  market,  of  stock 
for  exhibition  and  breeding,  and  the  production  of  eggs  for  hatching.  Eggs 
are  not  produced  specially  for  table  use,  as  hen  eggs  are,  and  only  a  small  per 
cent  of  duck  eggs  go  to  market.  A  few  duck  farmers  confine  operations  to 
the  growing  of  market  ducks. 

The  duck  business  presents  several  features  worth  special  mention  :  —  Duck 
growing  for  profit  really  has  to  do  with  only  one  of  the  numerous  varieties  of 
ducks,  that  one  being  for  the  purpose  far  superior  to  all  others.  In  striking 
contrast  to  the  turkey  —  the  general  farmers'  fowl — the  duck  is  a  fowl  for  the 
specialist,  peculiarly  suited  to  intensive  poultry  keeping.  Ducks  are  remark- 
ably free  from  disease  and  vermin.  They  grow  twice  as  fast  as  chickens  and 
turkeys.  Of  all  fowls  they  are  most  easily  managed  in  close  quarters.  Some 
of  their  bad  points  —  as  well  as  the  good  ones  —  are  to  the  advantage  of  the 
specialist.  They  are  of  all  fowls  the  most  difficult  to  dress  properly,  and  the 
most  unsalable  when  not  marketed  in  nice  condition.  Thus  in  handling  them 
skilled  labor  with  convenient  appliances  has  greater  advantages  over  make- 
shift arrangements  and  unskilled  or  half-skilled  labor  than  in  any  other  branch 
of  poultry  keeping. 

Until  a  few  years  ago  the  growing  of  green  ducks  for  market,  which  is  the 
principal  branch  of  the  business,  was  carried  on  only  in  a  few  localities  within 
easy  reach  of  New  York  and  Boston ;  but  of  late,  poultry  keepers  all  over 
the  country,  excited  by  stories  of  large  profits  from  ducks,  have  tried  duck 
growing.  Some  large  farms  have  been  established  at  interior  points,  and 
thousands  of  poultry  keepers  have  been  producing  ducks  in  quantities  ranging 
from  a  few  dozens  to  as  many  hundreds.  Very  few  of  those  thus  engaging  in 
duck  growing  had  any  knowledge  of  the  real  condition  of  the  duck  market  — 
further  than  that  ducks  were  generally  bringing  much  better  prices  than  other 
poultry, —  or  realized  how  very  limited  was  the  demand  for  green  ducks 
outside  of  the  large  eastern  cities.  The  duck,  has  been,  as  a  recent  writer  justly 


*NOTE. — "Green"  ducks:  —  quick  grown  ducks  marketed  at  between  two  and  three 
months  of  age  —  corresponding  to  soft  roasters  in  chickens. 


234  PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 

says  :  "  more  the  food  of  the  clubman  and  the  epicure  than  the  staple  dish  of 
the  family."  This  was  the  case  where  the  edible  qualities  of  quick  grown, 
grain  fed  ducks  were  pretty  well  known.  Elsewhere  the  reputation  of 
44  duck"  as  a  food  was  about  as  unsavory  as  the  flesh  of  the  common  puddle 
duck,  the  only  kind  of  which  people  generally  knew  anything.  Consumers 
of  poultry  were  apt  to  look  askance  at  their  poultryman  when  he  tried  to  sell 
them  duck  as  a  delicacy,  and  at  a  higher  price  than  chicken.  Thus  the 
growth  of  a  popular  taste  and  demand  for  ducks  is  necessarily  slow,  the  more 
so  because  so  many  regular  consumers  of  good  poultry  can  eat  duck  only 
occasionally,  or  only  in  cool  weather ;  or,  perhaps,  not  at  all.  Under  the 
circumstances,  the  first  who  tried  ducks  in  each  locality  usually  found  it  much 
easier  to  produce  duck  meat  than  to  sell  it  profitably.  The  natural  result  was 
the  congestion  of  the  surpluses  from  all  quarters  in  the  few  markets  where 
the  demand  had  been  good.  Following  this  came  demoralization  of  prices, 
particularly  in  the  latter  part  of  each  season. 

Though  the  business  has  been  temporarily  overdone,  well  established  farms 
are  able  to  make  a  very  fair  profit ;  and  duck  growing  still  offers  opportunity 
for  a  living  or  a  part  of  a  living  according  as  one  engages  in  it  extensively  and 
exclusively,  or  on  a  smaller  scale  in  connection  with  other  branches  of  poultry 
culture,  or  with  some  other  business.  Wherever  good  ducks  are  produced, 
the  demand  for  them  will  steadily  increase,  and  though  it  is  neither  likely  nor 
—  for  the  best  good  of  the  industry  —  desirable,  that  there  should  be  a  return 
to  the  high  prices  of  earlier  years,  the  inevitable  adjustment  of  supply  to 
demand  will  hold  prices  high  enough  generally  to  give  the  grower  a  living 
profit. 

344.  Profit  From  Ducks. —  On  large  plants  the  estimated  total  cost  of 
producing  ducks  is  6  to  8  cts.  per  pound.  At  the  lowest  prices  yet  reached 
this  gives  the  grower  a  net  profit  of  15  to  20  cts.  on  each  duck.  As  a  large 
part  of  the  product  is  marketed  before  very  low  prices  are  reached,  the  average 
net  profit,  at  prevailing  prices,  should  be  about  25  cts.  or  more,  per  duck.  At 
that  figure  a  plant  producing  ten  thousand  to  fifteen  thousand  ducks  annually 
yields  a  substantial  profit.  A  plant  of  such  capacity,  however,  is  not  built  in 
a  season,  nor  is  it  every  man  who  tries  duck  growing  that  can  successfully 
manage  such  a  plant.  It  represents  a  total  investment  of  hardly  less  than 
$10,000,  and  the  ability  to  produce  ducks  at  the  cost  figures  given  is  gained 
only  with  years  of  practical  experience.  In  a  business  conducted  on  a  smaller 
scale  the  cost  of  production  is  greater,  and  the  profit  less.  A  plant  which  one 
man  could  manage,  with  a  little  assistance  during  the  marketing  season,  would 
hardly  do  more  nowadays  than  give  him  fair  remuneration  for  his  own  labor. 
His  net  income  would  probably  be  about  the  same  as  that  for  the  one  man 
poultry  business  described  in  *[[  4.  The  amounts  credited  to  different  items 
would  differ;  the  totals  would  be  nearly  the  same.  This  estimate,  however, 
is  merely  suggestive.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  but  one  duck  grower  in  a  hundred 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT.  235 

would  find  it  advisable  to  run  a  duck  business  on  a  one  man  scale.  Where  an 
exclusive  duck  farm  will  pay  it  must  be  on  a  larger  scale  ;  elsewhere  generally 
duck  growing  must  be  carried  on  as  one  branch  of  a  combination.* 

345.  Ducks  Adapted  to  All  Sections. — Sites  for  Duck  Plants  and 
Houses. — The  information  given  in  Chap.  II.,  ^[  18,  20,  21,  23 — 26,  applies 
generally  to  duck  culture.     Exclusive  duck  farming  can  be  made  profitable 
only  near  a  large  city,  where  there  is  good  demand  for  ducks.     A  few  ducks 
can  be  profitably  grown  almost  anywhere.     As  has  been  intimated,  the  duck 
growers,  like  the  breeder  of  high  class  chickens  (f  19),  awakens  interest  in 
and  creates  an  ever-increasing  demand  for  his  product. 

Though  water  fowls,  ducks  need  a  well  drained  soil  and  dry  houses.  For 
breeding  ducks  a  pond  or  stream  of  water  is  an  advantage,  but  not  absolutely 
necessary.  Natural  shade  is  desirable.  If  there  is  none,  artificial  shade  must 
be  provided,  for  ducks  are  extremely  sensitive  to  the  heat  of  the  sun. 

346.  Houses  and  Yards. 

FOR  BREEDING  DUCKS. —  Duck  houses  are  built  on  the  same  general  plans 
as  houses  for  chickens.  Either  of  the  houses  shown  in  Figs,  i  and  4,  would 
make  a  good  house  for  a  small  flock  of  ducks.  For  a  very  small  flock  a  good 
sized  coop  may  be  used.  The  coop  shown  in  Fig.  46,  would  do  very  well  for 
a  few  ducks  and  a  drake.  On  large  plants  the  houses  are  usually  built  on  the 
continuous  plan,  (see  Figs,  n  and  12),  modified  to  suit  the  ducks  and  the 
methods  of  duck  keeping.  The  pens  for  ducks  are  generally  larger  than  for 
chickens,  and  as  it  is  desirable  to  have  them  as  nearly  square  as  it  is  practica- 
ble, most  duck  houses  are  wider,  though  some  narrow  houses  are  in  use. 

On  one  of  the  largest  duck  farms  the  pens  are  15  x  20  ft.,  in  houses  18  ft.  wide, 
and  of  such  lengths  as  are  desired  and  the  "  lay  of  the  land"  permits.  These 
houses  are  6  ft.  high  at  the  back,  where  the  walk  is,  and  four  feet  high  in  front ; 
with  double  pitched  roof  12  ft.  to  the  peak.  In  the  south  side  (front)  of  each 
pen  are  two  half-windows  and  a  door  to  give  the  ducks  access  to  the  outside 
runs.  In  the  north  wall,  opposite  the  middle  of  each  pen,  is  a  half-window 
for  ventilation  in  warm  weather.  The  partitions  between  the  pens  and  between 
pens  and  walk  are  of  boards,  and  are  about  30  in.  high.  In  the  partition 
between  each  pen  and  the  walk  is  a  gate  wide  enough  to  admit  a  wheelbarrow 
when  the  pens  are  to  be  cleaned.  In  feeding,  gathering  eggs,  etc.,  the  gates 
are  not  used ;  the  attendant  easily  stepping  over  the  partitions.  About  forty 
breeding  ducks  are  kept  in  each  pen.  The  yards  connecting  with  the  pens  are 
20  ft.  wide  by  100  ft.  long. 

*  NOTE.  —  In  most  places  poultrymen  growing  both  chickens  and  ducks,  will  usually 
find  the  latter  more  profitable  as  long  as  their  home  market  is  not  over-stocked;  especially 
is  this  true  of  those  producing  for  a  family  trade.  To  illustrate  :  —  A  plant  having  an 
annual  capacity  of  three  thousand  table  chickens,  old  and  young,  may  have  trade  that 
will  take  only  twenty-five  hundred  fowls  at  profitable  prices.  There  is  then  no  object 


236  PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 

On  another  farm  the  houses  are  built  without  walks;  are  15  ft.  wide,  8  ft. 
high  in  front,  5  ft.  4  in.  high  at  the  back,  with  shed  roof.  In  the  front  are  the 
doors  to  outside  runs,  and  half-windows  every  ten  feet.  In  the  back,  at  the 
middle  of  each  pen,  is  a  half-window  through  which  bedding  is  renewed  and 
litter  removed.  For  economy  of  construction  and  convenience  in  working, 
this  style  of  house  is  hard  to  excel. 

On  still  another  plant  thirty-five  breeding  ducks  are  kept  in  each  13  x 
13  ft.  pen,  connected  with  which  is  a  yard  26  x  125  ft.,  of  which  26  x  36  ft.  is 
water. 

Fixtures. — The  necessary  interior  furnishing  of  the  duck  house  is  of  the 
simplest.  When  the  ducks  are  fed  and  watered  indoors,  drinking  fountains, 
feed  troughs,  and  boxes  for  shell  and  grit,  complete  the  furnishing.  Some 
breeders  feed  outside.  Nest  boxes  are  not  needed ;  duck  keepers  agree  that 
fewer  eggs  are  broken  or  lost  when  the  ducks  scoop  out  nests  in  the  litter  or 
earth,  each  one  as  it  suits  her. 

Fences. — The  yard  fences,  like  the  inside  partitions,  are  low,  2  i*t.,  2j  ft., 
sometimes  3  ft.  high.  Wire  netting  attached  to  stakes  driven  into  the  ground, 
is  used  for  fencing. 

Brooder  Houses,  as  described  in  ^[46,  47,  and  illustrated  in  Figs.  29 — 32, 
are  used  for  ducklings. —  Separate  brooders  are  also  used. — The  partitions, 
both  in  the  houses  and  outside,  need  be  only  i  ft.  high  for  the  small  ducklings. 

DUCKS   DESCRIBED. 

347.  Kinds  of  Ducks. —  Fowls  were  described  in  f  68  as  :  —  common,  or 
mongrel;  cross  bred;  grade;  pure  bred,  and  Standard  bred.     These  terms 
apply  to   ducks  also,  though  crosses  are  much  rarer  than   among   chickens. 
Many  flocks  of  so-called  Pekins  are  grades  produced  by  the  systematic  use  of 
Pekin  drakes  on  white  ducks  starting  from  common  white  ducks.     Common 
ducks  are  often  very  good  layers,  but  grow  slowly,  and  their  meat  is  inferior 
to  that  of  the  improved  varieties. 

348.  Pekin  Ducks. — Though  White  Pekin  ducks  may  not  merit  all  that 
is  said  of  them  by  enthusiastic  breeders,  it  is  certain  that  without  the  Pekin 
duck  the  business  could  not  have  grown  to  its  present  proportions,  and  that 
as  a  market  duck  this  breed  has  no  rival.     They  are  hardy,  quick  growers, 

in  producing  to  the  full  capacity  of  the  plant.  But,  if  without  any  diminution  of  sales  of 
other  poultry,  five  hundred  ducks  can  be  profitably  sold  —  as  in  many  cases  they  could 
be, —  it  would  pay  to  raise  that  many  ducks,  and  the  ducks  would  probably  pay  pro- 
portionately better  than  the  chickens.  At  the  same  time,  it  might  be  a  bad  mistake  to 
suppose  that  because  the  ducks  were  paying  better  it  would  be  wise  to  reduce  the  produc- 
tion of  other  stock,  and  increase  the  number  of  ducks  grown. 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


prolific  layers  of  large  white  *  eggs,  and  thrive  in  close  confinement.    Standard 
.-.:)  weights       are:       adult 

drake,  8  Ibs. ;  young 
drake,  7  Ibs. ;  adult 
duck,  7  Ibs. ;  young 
duck,  6  Ibs.  The  body 
of  the  Pekin  duck  is 
very  long  and  deep, 
well  rounded  and  full, 
both  in  breast  and  in 
the  rear.  The  plum- 
age, which  is  softer 
and  more  downy  than 
that  of  other  varieties, 
is  of  a  faint  creamy 
white  surface  color, 
with  yellow  sometimes 
quite  strong  in  the 
under  color.  The  beak 

Fig.  89.     Pekin  Drake.     (By  courtesy  of  A.  J.  Hallock).  .g      ^  yellow        and 

according  to  the  Standard  should  be  free  from  black  marks.  In  adult  drakes, 
black  streaks  and  black  knobs 
(at  the  end  of  the  upper  man- 
dible), are  rarely  absent. 
Many  breeders  affirm  that 
the  most  vigorous  drakes 
usually  show  some  dark  color 
in  the  beak.  The  legs  and 
toes  should  be  of  a  reddish 
orange  color.  The  principal 
faults  are  an  exceedingly  timid 
disposition,  and  the  coarse  stri- 
dent voice  of  the  female. 

349.       Aylesbury     Ducks 

resemble  the  Pekins  in  a 
general  way  —  they  are  large 
white  ducks, —  but  have  bodies 
more  oval  shaped ;  whiter, 
harder  plumage ;  flesh  colored 
beaks,  and  light  yellow  feet.  Pig.  90.  Pekin  Duck. 


*  NOTE. —  From  every  large  flock  of  Pekins,  some  green  eggs  are  gathered.  These  are 
usually  rejected  for  incubating.  The  birds  producing  them  are  supposed  to  have  a  taint 
of  foreign  blood. 


23S 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


According  to  the  descriptions  of  this  breed  as  grown  near  the  English  town 
from  which  it  takes  its  name,  Aylesbury  ducks  should  be  quite  the  equals  of 
the  Pekins  in  market  quality  and  in  capacity  for  quick  growth.  In  the  hands 
of  the  American  growers  they  have  so  far  been  decidedly  inferior.  Standard 
weights  are :  adult  drake,  9  Ibs. ;  young  drake,  8  Ibs. ;  adult  duck,  8  Ibs. ; 
young  duck,  7  Ibs. 


350.     Rouen  Ducks  have  the  same  Standard  weights  as  Aylesburys.     In 
color  they  resemble  the  common  colored  ducks,  though  in  well  bred  stock  the 

colors  of  the  plum- 
age are  clearer,  and 
in  the  male  more 
brilliant  than  is 
usual  in  common 
ducks.  *  Consider- 
able differences  of 
opinion  exist  as  to 
the  merits  of  the 
Rouen  duck.  A 
result  of  the  ac- 
knowledged superi- 
ority of  the  Pekins 
for  the  purposes  of 
the  duck  farmer, 
has  been  to  throw 
other  varieties  —  no 
matter  how  many 
good  qualities  they 

Pig.  91.     Rouen  Ducks.     (By  courtesy  of  "Poultry,"  England).  pOSSCSS  into      the 

shade.  That  good  Rouen  ducks  are  inferior  to  Pekins  in  vigor,  prolificacy, 
capacity  for  rapid  growth,  or  actual  quality  of  meat,  remains  to  be  proved. 
The  color  of  the  Rouen  is  against  it  as  a  table  duck.  As  the  duck  industry  is 
principally  the  growing  of  ducks  for  the  table  and  of  stock  from  which  to  pro- 
duce table  ducks,  the  Rouen  never  can  be  seriously  considered  a  competitor  of 
the  Pekin  ducks  in  economical  duck  growing.  It  is  a  duck  for  the  fancier  and 
for  those  who  keep  ducks  for  home  use,  and  do  not  object  to  the  dark  pin- 
feathers. 


351.     Cayuga  Ducks  have  the  same  standard  weights  as  Pekins,  but  prob- 
ably average  much  lighter.     They  are  classed  as  hardy,  early  maturing  birds, 


*NOTE. —  Wright  supposes  the  common  colored  ducks  to  be  degenerate  Rouens.     It 
would  be  more  natural  to  think  the  Rouen  a  vastly  improved  common  duck. 


POULTRT-CRAFT.  239 

and  good  layers.  In  color  they  are  a  lustrous  greenish  black, —  the  flight 
feathers  of  the  females  sometimes  brownish.  In  most  sections  of  the  country 
they  are  rare. 

352.  Call  Ducks  are  bantam  ducks.     There  are  two  varieties :  the  Gray, 
in  color  resembling  Rouens,  and  the   White.     They  are  kept  only  by  fanciers, 
and  as  ornamental  fowls. 

353.  Black  East  Indian  Ducks  are  small  black  ducks,  not  common, 
and  kept  mostly  for  ornamental  purposes. 

354.  Crested  White  Ducks  are  almost  sufficiently  described   by  their 
name  :  they  are  of  medium  size,  and  quite  rare. 

355.  Muscovy  Ducks  are  specially  distinguished  by  the  bare  face  with 
much  carunculated  skin,  giving  them  a  savage  appearance,  and  a  reputation  for 
viciousness  which  the  males,  at  least,  richly  deserve.     Standard  weights  are  : 
adult  drake,   10  Ibs. ;   young  drake,  8  Ibs ;   adult  duck,  8  Ibs. ;  young  duck, 
7  Ibs.     They  are  reputed  very  poor  layers.     Before  the  advent  of  the  Pel  :n 
the  White  variety  of  this   breed  was   used   by  Long   Island   duck   growers. 
There  are  two  varieties  :  Colored  Muscovy  Ducks  are  black  and  white,  irregu- 
larly marked,    the  black   generally  predominating ;    with   dark  colored  bills, 
and  legs  ranging  from  yellow  to  black.      White  Muscovy  Ducks  have  pure 
white  plumage,  flesh  colored  beaks,  and  yellow  legs. 

356.  Indian  Runner  Ducks  were  but  recently  introduced  into  this  coun- 
try.  They  are  small ;   Standard  weights  :   males,  4^  Ibs. ;   females,  4  Ibs.   Their 
color  is  a  light  fawn  (or  gray).     They  are  valued  chiefly  for  laying  qualities. 
Rare,  and  not  likely  to  become  popular. 

357.  Buying  Stock. — The  remarks  on  buying  stock,  ^^  in,  112,  apply 
to  ducks  as  well  as  to  chickens.     Prices  of  ducks  and  of  duck  eggs,  while 
ruling  about  the  same  as  prices  of  chickens,  for  good  breeding  and  ordinary 
exhibition  stock,  (^[113),  never  reach  the  extreme  high  prices  mentioned  for 
chickens.     As  to  starting  with  eggs  or  with  stock,  the  remarks  in  ^  1 14  apply, 
except  that  Pekin  duck  breeders  sometimes  advise  starting  with  eggs  rather 
than  stock  when  the  shipment  has  a  long  distance  to  go.     The  ducks  go  off 
badly  on  a  long  journey,  and  are  not  likely  to  be  worth  much  as  breeders  the 
first  season  in  their  new  home. 

358.  Points  on  Breeding. — As  much  of  the  information  contained  in 
Chap.  X.,  ^[f  193 — 214,  as  is  of  general  application,  applies  to  duck  breeding. 
Points  requiring  special  mention  are  :  — 


240  PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 

Selecting  Breeding  Stock. — 

In  mating  ducks  to  produce  high  class  stock,  standard  specimens  of  both 
sexes  are  in  every  variety  used  to  produce  exhibition  specimens  of  both  sexes ; 
there  are  no  double  matings. 

In  mating  ducks  to  produce  market  stock,  deep  keeled,  meaty  specimens, 
strong  (not  coarse)  in  bone,  should  be  selected.  They  should  have  been 
hatched  in  April,  May  or  June.*  If  rapid  growth  is  desired  in  the  offspring, 
it  is  advisable  that  the  breeding  birds  selected  should  be  known  to  have  made 
quick  growth ;  but  table  quality  ought  not  to  be  sacrificed  to  quick  growth, 
for  the  worst  fault  of  ducks  generally  is  that  they  carry  too  little  meat  for 
their  weight. 

If  very  early  ducklings  are  wanted,  young  ducks  must  be  kept  to  lay  the 
eggs  from  which  to  hatch  them.  The  young  ducks  lay  a  month  or  more 
earlier  than  the  yearlings  and  two  year  olds.  The  older  birds  throw  better 
ducklings.  Most  large  operators  have  breeding  birds  of  different  ages, 
depend  on  the  younger  birds  for  early  eggs,  and  use  only  eggs  from  older 
stock  for  hatching  ducklings  for  breeding  stock. 

Number  of  females  to  a  male. — The  usual  rule  is  Jive  until  June,  after 
that  ten.  The  birds  are  kept  in  flocks  of  twenty-five  to  forty  of  both  sexes. 
Some  breeders  who  have  good  water  range,  say  that  with  it  they  can  run  one 
drake  to  seven,  nine,  or  even  twelve  ducks  throughout  the  season. 

The  breeding  season  covers  as  much  of  the  laying  season  as  the  grower 
wishes.  Some  breeders  hatch  nearly  every  egg  laid,  continuing  operations 
until  late  in  summer ;  some  hatch  only  for  the  period  of  good  prices.  The 
pens  should  be  mated  up  early.  If  forced  for  eggs,  some  ducks  begin  laying 
about  January  ist,  (a  few,  perhaps,  earlier)  ;  many  will  be  quite  a  month 
later.  Under  ordinary  conditions,  the  ducks  in  flocks  not  managed  for  eggs 
rarely  begin  laying  before  March.  The  laying  season  lasts  until  June,  July, 
or  August,  varying  for  individual  ducks,  and  depending  much  on  the  care 
and  general  condition  of  the  flock.  As  to  the  average  number  of  eggs  laid, 
there  are  wide  differences  of  opinion.  Estimates  placing  the  average  at  160, 
150,  140,  have  been  given,  but  one  well  informed  duck  grower  thinks  the 
average  for  large  flocks  nearer  to  100  than  to  any  of  those  figures;  and 
another  states  that  in  his  own  flocks  the  yearly  product  per  duck  varies  from 
100  to  135. 

CARE  OF  BREEDING  STOCK. 

359.  About  Water  Range.  —  Though  some  of  the  largest  growers  give 
their  breeding  ducks  no  water  except  for  drinking,  there  are  few  who  do  not 
think  access  to  a  pond  or  stream  of  water,  or  a  range  on  marshy  ground  a 

*NOTK. —  Some  breeders  use  only  April  or  May  hatched  birds;  some  say  the  June 
birds  are  just  as  good ;  all  agree  that  very  early  and  very  late  hatched  ducks  are  not 
desirable  as  breeders. 


POULTRY-CRAFT.  241 

decided  benefit  to  the  breeding  stock.  As  is  often  said,  they  can  do  without 
it ;  they  will  do  better  with  it.  Swimming,  paddling  about  in  marshy  places 
and  along  margins  of  streams,  is  to  the  duck  what  scratching  is  to  the  hen  — 
a  natural  and  favorite  exercise.  Ducks  in  all  dry  yards  are  in  the  condition 
of  hens  in  bare  yards  and  on  bare  floors  —  they  have  nothing  to  do  between 
meals.  The  benefits  of  such  exercise  as  can  be  secured  in  even  a  little  pool 
just  large  enough  for  a  few  ducks  to  paddle  in  at  once,  are  immediately 
noticeable  when  such  a  pool  is  furnished  ducks  which  had  been  kept  without 
water.  *  Water  for  bathing  ought  to  be  considered  as  necessary  for  ducks,  as 
the  dust  bath  is  for  hens.  The  important  results  of  giving  breeding  ducks 
water  range,  are :  greater  fertility  of  eggs,  more  vigorous  ducklings,  and  the 
birds  themselves  always  looking  'well groomed. 

360.  Cleanliness  is  important.  Feed  troughs  and  drinking  vessels 
should  be  kept  clean.  The  floors  of  the  pens  are  generally  littered  with 
cheap  hay,  shavings,  or  similar  material,  and  cleaned  out  and  the  bedding 
renewed  as  often  as  is  necessary  to  give  the  ducks  reasonably  clean  dry  bed- 
ding at  all  times.  The  yards  need  to  be  swept  or  scraped  occasionally,  and 
the  accumulation  of  droppings  removed.  Many  breeders  so  arrange  that  the 
yards  can  be  disinfected  by  plowing  up  in  the  fall  and  sowing  to  rye.  This 
serves  the  double  purpose  of  purifying  the  soil,  and  furnishing  green  food  for 
the  ducks  in  winter  and  spring. 


361.  Gentleness  and  Quietness  —  are  all-important  in  the  duck  yard. 
Pekin  ducks  are  absolutely  fearless  until  it  has  been  necessary  to  catch  some 
of  them  when  they  have  grown  too  large  to  be  taken  easily  by  the  body  in 
the  hand.     After  some  of  a  flock  have  been  caught  by  the  neck,  all  become 
shy  of  the  keeper,  and  if  an  attendant  is  hurried  and  reckless  when  moving 
among  them,  or  if  they  are  disturbed  by  visitors  or  dogs,  the  egg  yield  usually 
falls  off.     The  breeding  pens  once  made  up,  no  birds  should  be  removed. 
Stock  for  sale  ought  never  to  be  kept  with  breeding  stock. 

362.  About  the   Eggs. — When  the  ducks  have  access  to  water,  it  is 
necessary  to  keep  them  from  it  until  all  have  laid  in  the  morning.     Usually 

*NOTE. —  Without  doubt  some  ducks  kept  without  water  do  better  than  some  given 
constant  access  to  water;  —  there  may  be  differences  in  breed,  feed,  and  general  care;  but 
as  between  water  for  swimming,  or  at  least  for  bathing,  and  water  for  drinking  only, 
it  seems  incredible  that  any  one  who  has  tried  both  "with  the  same  ducks  could  have  any 
other  opinion  than  that  enough  water  for  bathing  is  a  necessity,  and  that  more  is 
desirable.  Pekin  ducks  which  have  not  been  accustomed  to  water  may  seem  shy  of  it 
if  an  attempt  is  made  to  drive  them  to  water  away  from  their  quarters,  and  may 
hesitate,  but  not  for  long, —  to  plunge  into  a  pool  prepared  for  them  in  a  yard  where 
there  had  been  none. 


242  PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 

all  will  have  laid  by  eight  o'clock.  (Ducks  generally  lay  at  night  or  very 
early  in  the  morning).  In  cold  weather  eggs  should  be  gathered  as  early  as 
possible  to  prevent  their  becoming  chilled.  Soiled  eggs  should  be  washed  at 
once,  and  in  cold  weather  should  be  wiped  dry  after  being  washed.  The 
eggs  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  place.  (See  <|[  229). 

363.  Feeding  Breeding  Ducks.  —  Ducks  are  fed  mostly  on  mixtures  of 
mill  stuffs  wet  with  cold  water.  Very  few  large  duck  growers  cook  the  food, 
though  some  scald  it  in  winter.  Cooked  food  can  be  used  if  convenient,  but 
unless  the  food  must  be  cooked  for  other  stock,  there  is  no  object  in  cooking 
it  for  the  ducks.  The  common  experience  of  breeders  is  that  they  do  just  as 
well  on  raw  food.  Many  feed  the  ducks  no  whole  grain  at  all.  Their 
digestive  apparatus  is  not  suited  to  a  diet  composed  largely  of  whole  grain  ; 
still  they  appreciate  a  little  of  it  occasionally.  There  must  always  be  water 
near  the  feeding  troughs  at  feeding  times,  and  except  in  freezing  weather, 
the  ducks  should  have  drinking  water  always  accessible.  Ducks  are  greedy, 
dirty  feeders.  They  will  consume  a  larger  proportion  of  coarse  bulky  food 
than  hens  will  ;  yet  they  are  not  as  heavy  feeders  as  is  commonly  supposed.  * 
In  general  it  is  both  economy  and  good  feeding  to  give  ducks  fed  a  pretty 
good  meal  of  grain  stuffs  morning  and  evening  ;  all  the  green  food  they 
will  eat  during  the  day.  Where  ducks  are  kept  in  rather  close  confine- 
ment, the  most  common  error  in  feeding  is  giving  grain  food  too  often, 
and  not  providing  green  stuff  in  abundance.  Ducks  need  grit,  shell,  and 
charcoal. 

Ducks  ranging  as  many  small  flocks  do,  often  find  food  which  imparts  a 
strong  flavor  to  eggs  and  flesh.  If  the  eggs  are  used  only  for  hatching  this  is 
immaterial  ;  if  some  of  them  are  wanted  for  cooking,  the  ducks  must  be  kept 
from  the  objectionable  food.  The  rations  given  below  are  from  well  known 
duck  growers.  They  present  less  variety  than  the  rations  given  for  hens 
and  chickens  (^146),  but  the  ingredients  used  are  mostly  such  as  may  be 
obtained  anywhere. 

(1).  Ration  for  Breeding  Ducks.—  (HALLOCK).—  Four  pails  corn  meal,  2  pails 
bran,  i  of  middlings,  i  of  oats,  i  of  wheat,  mixed  with  2  bu.  chopped  grass  or  greens  or 
chopped  clover  used  when  greens  cannot  be  had. 


(2).  Rations  for  Breeding  Ducks.—  (RANKIN).—  Z>«™»£-/>&<?  fall  feed  to  both  old 
and  young  stock  3  parts  wheat  bran,  i  part  Quaker  oat  feed,  i  part  corn  meal,  5  per 

*NoTE.  —  It  is  often  said,  even  by  those  who  should  know  better,  that  it  is  impossible 
to  satisfy  the  appetite  of  a  duck.  Such  statements  lead  people  to  think  it  much  more 
expensive  to  feed  ducks  than  to  feed  other  fowls.  A  flock  of  grown  ducks  will  not  eat 
more  than  an  equal  number  of  average  chickens  ;  nor  does  it  require  more  food  to  grow 
a  duck  than  to  grow  a  chicken  of  the  same  weight. 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT.  243 

cent  beef  scraps,  5  per  cent  grit,  and  all  the  green  stuff  they  will  eat*  in  the  shape  of 
corn  fodder  cut  fine,  clover  or  oat  fodder,  etc.  Feed  this  mixture  twice  a  day,  all  they 
will  eat. 

For  laying  birds — 5  parts  wheat  bran,  5  parts  corn  meal,  4  parts  Quaker  oat  feed,  2 
parts  boiled  potatoes  or  turnips,  3  parts  of  clover  rowen,  i  of  grit;  add  green  rye  or 
refuse  clover  cut  fine.  Feed  twice  a  day  all  they  will  eat,  with  a  lunch  of  corn  and  oats 
at  noon. 

(3).  Ration  for  Breeding  Ducks  on  Grass  Range — (POLLARD).— Feed  night 
and  morning  what  they  will  eat  of  a  mixture  of  3  parts  Indian  meal,  3  parts  wheat  bran, 
i  part  low  grade  flour,  i  part  beef  scraps ;  the  whole  salted  slightly,  and  thoroughly 
mixed,  not  too  wet,  with  cold  water.  Never  cook  the  food  except  in  winter,  when  it 
may  be  mixed  with  hot  water.  In  -winter  give  a  liberal  allowance  of  boiled  turnips 
mashed  in  with  the  grain,  say  one-third  turnips  every  other  morning,  and  give  cabbage 
or  any  other  green  food  obtainable  at  noon. 

(4).  Rations  for  Breeding  Ducks. — (WEBER  BROS.) — In  fall  keep  on  grass  range, 
and  feed  light.  From  the  middle  of  November,  when  put  in  laying  houses,  until 
December  i5th,  feed  equal  parts  shorts  and  ground  oats,  to  which  add  five  per  cent  beef 
scraps;  give  this  twice  a  day,  morning  and  evening;  give  green  food  at  noon.  After 
December  I5th  give  full  laying  ration  :  equal  parts  corn  meal  and  shorts,  with  ten  per 
cent  beef  scraps  added.  If  green  food  is  not  available  add  one-fifth  cooked  vegetables  to 
the  mash.  Give  raw  vegetables  at  noon  two  or  three  times  a  week. 

HATCHING  AND   REARING. 

364.  Which  Method  ? — In  duck  growing  on  a  large  scale,  only  artificial 
methods  of  hatching  and   brooding  are  used ;  small  growers  frequently  use 
hens.      (Ducks  are  rarely  used  to  incubate  their  own  eggs.     The  Pekins  are 
non-sitters) .     If  one  has  the  hens,  it  may  pay  better  to  hatch  with  them  when 
not  more  than  a  few  hundred  ducks  are  reared ;   but  to  get  or  keep  hens 
expressly  to  hatch  ducklings,  would  be  very  poor  policy.     In  any  case  when 
more  than  two  or  three  hundred  ducks  are  to  be  hatched,  artificial  methods 
should  be  used. 

365.  Hatching  in  Incubators. — The  artificial  method  as  described  in 
Chapter  XL,  f  f  253 — 259,  applies  to  duck  eggs,  except  in  the  few  points  noted 
below :  — 

The  period  of  incubation  for  duck  eggs  is  twenty-eight  days. 

They  require  more  ventilation  than  hen  eggs,  because  the  egg  is  larger,  and 
therefore  more  difficult  to  dry  down,  and  because  it  has  to  be  dried  down  to  an 
air  space  proportionately  larger  than  in  the  hen  egg,  (see  Fig.  79).  A  larger 
air  space  is  needed  to  give  the  larger  head  and  bill  of  the  duckling  room  to 
work. 

Operators  advise  cooling  duck  eggs  longer  than  hen  eggs. 

*  NOTE. —  If  the  food  contains  too  much  green  stuff,  the  ducks  eat  the  grain  and  as  much  green  food  as  they  want, 
leaving  the  remainder  in  the  troughs. 


244  po  UL  TR  r~  CRAFT. 

Ducklings  generally  pip  the  shells  thirty-six  to  forty-eight  hours  before  leav- 
ing them.  If  unable  to  get  out  themselves  after  the  twenty-eighth  day,  they 
may  be  helped  out,  and  will  generally  "  make  a  live  of  it." 


366.  Brooding    Ducklings. — The   ducklings    are    usually   left   in   the 
machines  for  twenty-four  hours,  or  longer,  before  being  removed  to  the  brood- 
ers.    In  small  brooders  not  more  than  fifty  ducklings  should  be  kept  together ; 
as  many  as  one  hundred  and  fifty  may  be  started  in  each  pen  of  a  large  brooder 
house.     Temperature  and  ventilation  should  be  according  to  instructions  for 
chicks  in  \  260.     For  the  first  few  days  the  ducklings  must  be  confined  quite 
near  the  heat,  not  allowed  to  get  far  from  it.     In  the  piped  brooder  houses 
they  are  kept  near  the  hover  by  boards  just  long  enough  to  reach  across  the 
pens  placed  at  the  desired  distance  from  the  front  of  the  house,  about  a  foot 
from  it  at  first,  the  distance  increased  a  little  each  day,  until  at  four  or  five  days 
the  ducklings  are  allowed  full  run  of  the  pens.     Ducklings  do  not  need  heat  as 
long  as  chickens,  and  at  three  to  six  weeks  of  age,  according  to  the  season,  are 
able  to  do  without  artificial  heat,  and  may  be  removed  to  cold  houses. 

367.  Feeding  Ducklings. — The  instructions  as  to  methods  of  feeding 
incorporated  with  some  of  the  rations  given  below,  cover  the  ground  quite 
fully.     It  is  well,  however,  to  impress  it  on  the  novice  that  ducklings  must 
always  have  water  near  their  food  when  eating,  and  that  sand  or  fine  grit  with 
the  first  feeds  is  essential. 


(1).  Rations  for  Ducklings.—  (RANKIN).—  First  three  or  four  days  :—  i  part  hard 
boiled  egg,  3  parts  stale  bread  crumbs  ;  after  that  equal  parts  of  corn  meal  and  wheat 
bran,  with  boiled  potatoes  and  a  little  beef  scrap. 


(2).  Rations  for  Ducklings.—  (HALLOCK).—  T^Vs*  week  —  equal  parts  of  corn 
meal,  middlings,  crackers  or  stale  bread,  and  green  stuff;  mix  in  a  small  handful  of  sand 
to  each  quart  of  food.  Give  occasionally  bread  soaked  with  milk  for  a  change.  Second 
'week  —  4  parts  corn  meal,  2  parts  wheat  bran,  2  parts  middlings,  i  part  beef  scraps,  — 
sand  ;  mix  with  about  one-third  the  quantity  of  green  stuff.  At  about  six  weeks  put  ducks 
in  fattening  pens,  and  feed  £  meal,  the  remainder  about  equal  parts  of  bran,  middlings, 
and  greens  ;  add  about  12  per  cent  of  the  whole  beef  scraps. 


(3).  Rations  for  Ducklings. — (COOPER). —  First  three  or  four  days —  soaked  bread, 
or  cracker  dust,  and  hard  boiled  eggs  chopped  fine,  mixed  and  fed  moist.  Then  feed 
bran,  corn  meal,  shorts,  and  a  little  beef  scrap  —  increasing  the  amount  of  beef  scrap  as 
the  ducks  grow  older  —  mix  well  and  feed  moist.  Gradually  add  vegetable  food,  consist- 
ing of  boiled  roots,  turnips,  potatoes,  etc.,  or  green  oats,  rye,  corn  fodder,  or  clover  cut 
fine  as  possible  in  a  feed  cutter;  mix  the  roots  and  grass  with  the  feed.  A  growing  duck 
may  be  fed  one  part  green  food  to  two  parts  grain  mixture  to  get  a  large  frame.  The 
last  two  weeks  before  marketing  shorten  up  the  green  food,  and  give  more  corn.  Too 
much  green  food  makes  the  duck  soft  and  flabby,  and  injures  its  sale.  By  fattening  on 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT.  245 

grain  the  flesh  is  made  firm,  and  will  "  stand  up,"  as  the  dealers  say.  Fish  is  an  excellent 
food  for  young  ducks,  but  if  very  much  is  fed  it  taints  the  meat.  The  "  beef  scrap  " 
duck  is  the  best  flavored,  and  will  bring  the  best  price. 

(4).  Rations  for  Ducklings. — (POLLARD). —  At  first  feed  —  3  wheat  bran,  i  Indian 
meal,  wet  to  a  crumbly  mass  with  milk,  either  skimmed  or  whole,  but  not  cooked. 
Cover  floor  in  front  of  hover  for  some  distance  with  fine  gravel  or  sand ;  six  or  eight 
inches  from  the  hover  place  small  dishes  containing  food  slightly  sprinkled  with  sand 
the  first  time,  and  a  fountain  of  lukewarm  water.  After  all  this  simply  keep  the 
ducklings  warm,  and  let  nature  work.  If  worth  rearing  they  gradually  get  out  from 
under  the  hover,  and  it  is  astonishing  how  quickly  they  will  begin  to  stow  away  the  food 
and  water.  Keep  food  before  them  all  the  time  for  the  first  three  days,  and  water  all 
night.  After  this  they  may  be  fed  every  three  hours,  till  seven  or  eight  days  old.  After 
the  fifth  day  they  may  be  fed  5  per  cent  of  beef  scrap  instead  of  milk,  or  both  may  be 
given.  At  two  -weeks  make  the  food  i  meal,  i  bran,  and  add  10  per  cent  beef  scraps.  At 
three  -weeks  —  3  parts  each  of  bran  and  meal,  with  i  part  low  grade  flour,  and  15  per  cent 
beef  scraps;  continue  this  food  until  killing  time,  not  changing  for  any  heavier  or  more 
fattening  food.  After  the  fifth  week  feed  only  three  times  a  day.  Feed  green  food,  or 
not,  as  convenient ;  it  is  good  for  those  intended  for  fattening,  but  not  necessary  for 
market  ducks. 

368.  Hatching  and  Brooding  With   Hens. —  For  the  management  of 
sitting  hens  see  ^ffl  232 — 235>  23$ — 244-     The  principal  faults  of  hens  as  duck 
mothers  are  that  they  usually  trample  too  many  ducklings  in  the  nests  —  more 
ducklings  than  they  would  chicks ;  and  that  hen  brooded  ducklings  are  apt  to 
be  affected  with  lice.     The  first  fault  may  be  partially  remedied  by  removing 
the  ducklings  as  fast  as  hatched,  returning  them  when  the  hatch  is  complete, 
and  they  are  stronger.     For  the  other  the  hen  should  be  treated  with  insect 
powder,  and  the  ducks  provided  with  drinking  pans  deep  enough  to  allow 
them  to  get  their  heads  entirely  under  water.     The  hens  must  be  kept  confined 
to  coops,  such  as  are  used  for  hens  with  chicks,  and  the  ducklings  to  pens  built 
around  or  adjoining  the  coops.     If  the  coops  are  reasonably  tight  and  warm, 
the  ducklings  require  brooding  only  about  three  weeks  in  moderate  weather. 
In  warm  weather  they  pay  little  attention  to  the  hen  after  the  first  few  days. 
If  the  grower  is  raising  chicks  and  scalding  or  baking  food  for  them,  it  can 
be  used  for  the  ducklings  as  well;  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  prepare  food 
specially  for  them.      Some  authorities  say  food  for  ducklings   must   be   ivet 
(besides  there  being  water  to  drink  at  hand)  or  they  cannot  swallow  it.     In  that 
they  are  wrong.     Coops  and  pens  should  be  kept  clean. 

369.  Management  of  Ducklings  After  Weaning  is  the  same,  whether 
previously  kept  in  brooders  or  with  hens.     Those  intended  for  market  will  be 
grown  quicker  and  at  less  cost  if  given  only  as  much  yard  room  as  they  need 
to  keep  themselves  and  their  yard  decently  clean, —  when  the  keeper  does  his 
part  at  regular  and  not  too  long  intervals.    The  flocks  should  not  be  too  large ; 
one  of  the  best  authorities  on  the  subject  gives  fifty  as  the  largest  number  that 
should  be  kept  together.     The  market  ducks  grow  faster  if  not  given  water  for 
swimming. 


246  PO  UL  TR  T-  CRA  FT. 

Ducks  designed  for  breeding  are  better  ii  given  more  liberty  from  the  time 
they  are  weaned ;  but  the  usual  practice  is  to  run  all  the  ducklings  together  in 
close  quarters  until  they  are  of  an  age  for  marketing,  then  sort  out  those 
wanted  for  breeding,  give  them  more  liberty,  a  grass,  and,  if  possible,  a  water 
range.  In  sorting  stock  novices  are  often  at  a  loss  to  know  how  to  distinguish 
the  sexes.  After  they  are  about  five  or  six  weeks  old  the  ducks  "  quack" 
loudly  when  caught ;  the  drakes  give  a  low  sound  between  a  quack  and  a  hiss  ; 
or  sometimes  make  no  noise  at  all. 


370.  Selling  Ducks. — The  ducks  produced  on  large  farms  are  always 
sold  dressed,  and  go  mostly  to  wholesale  dealers.    Small  growers,  remote  from 
the  large  markets,  must  be  governed  by  the  conditions  of  their  markets.     In 
some  places  it  pays  better  to  sell  the  ducks  alive,  in  others  to  dress  them  ;  gen- 
erally the  best  profit  is  obtained  by  selling  direct  to  consumers.     Green  ducks 
are  marketed  at  nine  to  twelve  weeks  old,  and  should  weigh  nine  to  twelve 
pounds  to  the  pair ;  the  average  weight  is  rather  more  than  ten  pounds  per 
pair.     The  demand  for   them    begins  in  April    (a  little)    and  May,  and  the 
highest  prices  are  obtained  in  those  months.     Early  in  the  season,  when  prices 
are  high,  with  a  tendency  to  take  big  drops,  many  ducks  are  marketed  at  nine 
weeks  old  ;  later  they  are  held  longer.     If  not  killed  before  the  pin-feathers  of 
the  adult  plumage  start,  (at  eleven  to  fourteen  weeks,  the  exact  time  being 
determined  by  inspection,  and,  by  the  expert,  quite  accurately  by  the  general 
appearance  of  the  ducks),  they  must  be  held  for  a  month  or  more  longer,  until 
the  plumage  has  grown  enough  to  make  clean  picking  possible.     At  this  time 
they  weigh  heavier  and  are  really  much  better  ducks,  their  flesh  being  firmer 
and  better  distributed ;  but,  if  from  large  stock,  they  will  be  too  large  for  the 
general  trade,  and  growers  try  to  get  all  ducks  marketed  at  the  earlier  age. 
The  ducks  of  an  age  for  market  are  sorted  the  day  before  the   killing.     In 
catching  they  are  taken  by  the  neck.     If  caught  by  the  feet,  there  is  danger  of 
dislocating  the  legs.     Those  to  be  killed  are  kept  without  food. 

371.  Killing  and  Dressing  Ducks. —  If  the  feathers  are  to  be  sold,  the 
ducks  must  be  dry  picked.     The  feathers  will  very  nearly  pay  the  cost  of  pick- 
ing.    For  the  eastern  markets  only  dry  picked  stock  is  wanted.     As  experts 
say  that  while  it  requires  more  experience  to  properly  dry  pick  a  duck,  that 
method,  once  learned,  is  easier  and  quicker,  it  will  pay  one  who  is  dressing 
many  ducks  to  learn  and  use  that  method,  even  though  his  market  does  not 
require  it.     Cushman  thus  describes  the  methods  of  killing  and  dry  picking  :  — 

They  are  stabbed  in  the  back  of  the  roof  of  the  mouth,*  after  which  they  are  stunned 
by  a  blow  with  a  club,  or  by  striking  the  head  against  a  post.     The  latter  is  said  to  be 


*  NOTE.—  As  to  the  manner  of  holding  the  bird  when  making  the  cut,  Rankin  says:  —  "  The  bird  should  be  held 
between  the  knees,  the  bill  held  open  with  the  left  hand,  and  a  cut  made  across  the  roof  of  the  mouth  just  below  the 
eyes."  McFetridge's  method  is:  —  "  Take  the  duck  under  the  left  arm  with  its  head  in  your  left  hand,  etc." 


PO  ULTR1-  CRA  FT.  247 

less  apt  to  disfigure  them.*  The  picker  sits  beside  a  box  (for  the  feathers)  about  level 
with  his  knees,  with  the  duck  across  his  lap.  He  holds  its  head  between  his  knee  and 
the  box  to  prevent  its  fluttering  and  soiling  the  feathers  with  blood.  In  removing  them 
his  hand  is  frequently  wet  in  a  dish  of  water.  This  causes  the  feathers  to  stick  to  it, 
and  enables  him  to  grasp  and  pluck  them  with  little  effort.  The  wing,  tail,  and  hard 
feathers  are  thrown  out;  the  others  are  saved.  They  are  usually  removed  by  a  sharp  jerk 
in  the  opposite  direction  from  which  they  lie,  the  skin  meanwhile  being  drawn  taut.  If 
very  tender  the  skin  at  the  roots  of  the  feathers  is  held  between  the  fingers,  and  they  are 
pulled  out  straight  a  few  at  a  time.  The  pin-feathers  are  wet  down  to  cause  them  to 
stick  to  the  hand,  and  then  caught  between  the  thumb  and  the  blade  of  a  knife  held  in 
the  hand.  The  soft  feathers  are  left  on  the  wings,  and  the  head  and  neck  are  not 
plucked.  The  ducks  are  not  drawn  or  headed.  The  wings  are  held  in  place  by  a  string 
tied  about  the  body.  The  legs  are  washed,  and  the  blood  washed  from  the  mouth  and 
head.  The  ducks  are  soaked  in  fresh  water  for  a  time,  then  put  in  ice  water.  If  placed 
breast  down  the  abdomen  will  look  more  plump  and  attractive  in  shape  after  they  harden. 
The  small  stern  bones  which  otherwise  would  stick  out,  are  previously  bent  down. 

Scalding  Ducks. — Ducks  are  killed  for  scalding  as  described  for  chickens, 
in  f  282.  The  method  of  scalding  is  described  in  f  284.  The  plumage  of 
the  duck  being  more  dense,  the  scalding  takes  a  little  longer.  Some  pickers 
wrap  the  scalded  duck  in  a  blanket,  and  let  it  steam  a  few  minutes ;  but  this 
practice  is  condemned  because  it  partially  cooks  the  skin,  thus  spoiling  the 
appearance  of  the  duck. 

372.  Packing   and    Shipping    instructions   are   the    same   as   given   in 
ff  286 — 288,  but  in  packing  ducks  they  should   be  placed  breast  down,  in 
barrels ;  and  in  boxes,  breast  down  in  the  bottom  layer,  and  up  in  the  top 

layer. 

373.  Exhibiting  Ducks. — Ducks  should  require  little  preparation  for  the 
show  room.     Here  is  where  the  superiority  of  a  water  range  is  undeniably 
evident.     Ducks  which  have  always  had  the  opportunity  to  keep  clean  are 
brighter,  more  sprightly,  firm  in  plumage.     Showing  is  very  hard  on  ducks, 
especially  on  the  timid  Pekins.     They  lose  weight  rapidly.     Some  breeders 
will  not  show  the  same  ducks  twice  in  a  season,  and  will  not  show  at  all 
except  at  shows  early  enough  to  leave  them  time  to  get  the  birds  in  breeding 
condition  again  early  in  the  season. 

374.  Diseases  of  Ducks. — Ducks  that  are  at  all  well  cared  for  are  rarely 
sick.     Sick  ones  are  better  dead.     There  are  no  diseases  peculiar  to  ducks, 
but  ducks  which  run  with  other  fowls  sometimes  contract  diseases  from  them. 
Damp  quarters  often  cause  lameness.     Occasionally  a  duck  will  show  slight 
symptoms  of  cold  —  a  frothy  scum  covering  the  eyes.     They  should  be  washed 
clean  with  warm  water  containing  a  little  carbolic  acid,  and  the  bird  treated 
for  a  cold  (IF  313).     If  the  cold  is  at  all  severe,  it  is  better  to  kill  the  duck. 


*  NOTE. —  By  preventing  proper  bleeding. 


248 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


375.  Feather  Pulling  is  a  common  vice  among  ducklings  kept  in  large 
numbers  in  small  yards,  and  a  difficult  one  to  deal  with.  There  is  no  sure 
cure.  It  begins  when  the  large  quill  feathers  of  the  wings  are  coming  through 
the  skin.  They  often  cause  bleeding,  and  curiosity  and  the  taste  of  blood 
develops  the  vice.  If  taken  in  time,  much  may  be  done  to  stamp  it  out.  At 
first  both  victims  and  offenders  are  few  in  number,  and  if  they  are  removed, 
or  even  if  the  offenders  only  are  removed,  there  is  no  further  trouble.  If  the 
vice  becomes  general,  about  all  that  can  be  done  is  to  feed  heavier  of  meat, 
and  try  to  keep  the  ducks  busy.  A  few  large  bones  with  a  little  raw  meat 
adhering,  placed  about  the  yard,  will  help  in  this. 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT.  249 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 


Geese. 

376.  Conditions  of  Profitable  Goose  Culture. — The  goose,  like  the 
turkey,  is  a  fowl  for  those  who  can  give  it  room,  and  is  generally  made  profit- 
able only  where  it  can  pick  the  most  of  its  living.  While  geese  cannot  be 
advantageously  kept  in  close  confinement,  they  are  not  rovers  —  like  turkeys. 
They  are  contented  on  a  comparatively  small  range,  and  easily  kept  within  the 
bounds  allotted  them.  Geese  are  grazers.  Grass  and  weeds,  when  they  can 
be  had,  form  the  greater  part  of  their  food.  Given  a  dry  place  to  sleep  in, 
they  can  live  and  thrive  on  low  marshy  ground  suitable  only  for  water  fowls. 

Goose  growing  is  nowhere  in  this  country  carried  on  as  an  exclusive 
business ;  nor  is  it  carried  on  extensively  except  in  a  few  localities  near  New 
York  and  Boston,  and  by  a  few  large  breeders  of  thoroughbred  poultry.  In 
most  places  geese  are  rare  in  comparison  with  other  fowls,  and  though  they 
come  in  large  quantities  to  some  of  the  big  western  cities,  the  demand  for 
them  is  relatively  light.  The  fact  is  that  outside  of  the  eastern  localities 
alluded  to,  most  of  the  geese  sent  to  market  are  of  rather  inferior  quality,  and 
the  reputation  of  u  goose"  meat  is  about  on  a  par  with  that  of  "  duck  "  where 
really  good  ducks  are  unknown.  Even  in  the  cities  where  the  supply  of  first 
class  geese  is  best,  the  demand  for  them  is  small  as  compared  with  the  demand 
for  chickens,  turkeys,  or  even  ducks.  Still  the  present  supply  of  good  stock 
does  not  equal  the  demand,  and  one  situated  favorably  for  raising  geese  near 
one  of  these  markets  would,  if  reasonably  successful,  make  a  very  good  profit 
on  as  many  as  he  could  conveniently  manage.  Even  in  favored  localities 
growers  generally  do  not  think  it  advisable  or  practicable  to  attempt  growing 
geese  on  such  a  scale  as  chickens  and  ducks  are  produced.  In  most  places 
growing  geese  for  market  ought  to  be  undertaken  only  when  the  conditions 
are  such  that,  whatever  the  income  from  them,  it  is  nearly  all  profit.* 

*  NOTE. —  It  may  be  said  here,  as  was  said  of  ducks,  that  a  good  product  will  gradually 
create  a  better  demand;  —  but  geese  cannot  be  successfully  grown  in  confinement,  as 
ducks  are,  and  one  who  could  give  them  room  for  exercise  but  not  for  pasture,  and  was 
therefore  at  expense  in  feeding  them,  would  introduce  and  create  a  demand  for  good  geese 
only  to  find  that  as  soon  as  there  was  an  evident  demand,  persons  conveniently  situated 
for  keeping  geese  without  cost  would  supply  it  at  prices  with  which  he  could  not  com- 
pete. It  will  undoubtedly  pay  those  who  now  keep  poor  geese  anywhere  with  some 
profit,  to  get  better  geese ;  and  many  people  who  do  not  keep  geese  at  all  could  do  so 
with  profit.  The  poultryman  who  is  crowded  for  room  had  better  let  geese  alone. 


250  POULTR  T-  CRA  FT. 

377.  Profit  in  Geese.     Growers  say  that  geese  are  more  profitable  than 
ducks,  but  cannot  be  grown  in  such  quantities.     Goslings  —  green  geese  — 
are  produced  at  about  the  same  cost  as  ducks  (6  cts.  to  8  cts.  per  pound)  when 
they  are  fed  heavily  ;  at  less  cost  when  they  have  good  pasture.     The  prices 
for  good  stock  range  from  35  cts.  per  pound  at  the  beginning  of  the  season, 
in  June,  down  to  15  cts.  later.     Some  growers  sell  the  goslings  at  five  or  six 
weeks  of  age  to  fatteners.     It  is  reported  that  in  a  series  of  years,  one,  per- 
haps the  largest  grower  in  New  England,  received  for  goslings  at  this  age  an 
average  price  for  each  year  not  lower  than  $1.09,  and  from  that  up  to  $1.17. 
In  this  case  the  cost  of  raising  the  goslings,  aside  from  the  labor,  was  not 
great  ;  but  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  breeding  stock  from  which  he  produced 
in  one  season  nearly  eleven  hundred  goslings,  represented  an  investment  of 
about  $500,  —  possibly  more.     In  sections  where  there  is  not  much  demand 
for  geese,  the  profit  is  never  large,  even  when  the  expense  of  growing  them  is 
small,  for  prices  are  usually  low.      Growing  mongrel  geese  —  hybrids  of  the 
wild  and  domestic  goose  —  is  for  those  who  have  skill  and  facilities  for  it,  the 
most  profitable  kind  of  goose  raising.     Mongrel  geese  of  12  to  14  Ibs.  weight 
sell  readily  at  the  holiday  season  for  double  the  price  of  other  geese. 

378.  Shelters  and  Fences.  —  Geese  need   little   shelter,  a  low  shed  to 
protect  them  in  bad  weather  being  sufficient.     A  fence  of  almost  any  kind, 
wire,  boards,  or  pickets,  will  do  for  geese.     The  height  for  the  heavier  breeds 
need  not  be  greater  than  two  or  three  feet.     For  those  better  able  to  fly,  the 
fences  should  be  higher.     It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  clip  one  wing  of  each 
bird. 

379.  Kinds  of  Geese.  —  The  kinds  of  geese  are:  —  common,  crossbred, 
grade,  pure  bred,  Standard  bred,  and  mongrel.     As  applied  to  geese,  some 
of  these  terms  are  not  used  in  the  same  sense  as  when  applied  to  chickens 
(IF  68). 

Common  geese  are  —  presumably  —  descendants  of  early  importations 
brought  from  Europe  by  settlers.  They  are  usually  rather  small,  hardly 
larger  than  good  sized  ducks  of  the  Pekin,  Aylesbury,  or  Rouen  breeds. 

Cross  bred  is  applied  by  goose  breeders  to  the  offspring  of  cross  matings  of 
pure  breeds,  and  also  to  the  offspring  of  thoroughbreds  mated  with  common 
geese. 

Pure  bred,  thoroughbred,  and  Standard  bred  have  the  same  signification 
as  in  ^[68. 


are  true  hybrids,  and  sterile.    They  are  produced  by  crossing 
wild  and  domestic  geese. 


POULTRT-CRAFT.  *$i 

BREEDS  OF  GEESE  DESCRIBED. 

380.  Toulouse  Geese  attain  the  greatest  size,  often  exceeding  the  Stand- 
ard weights,  which  are  :  — adult  gander,  20  Ibs. ;  young  gander,  18  Ibs. ;  adult 
goose,  18  Ibs. ;  young  goose,  15  Ibs.  In  color  they  are  gray,  upper  surfaces 
dark  gray,  shading  to  lighter  gray  on  the  breast,  body,  and  thighs,  with  white 


^c^^^&s^isg&ggf^is^^A 

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i/:  #"  ^>*WBlEfi£#iafc*2:*'  'J&'Jf&^.^^s&S 


WWK35* 


Fi|f.  92.     Toulouse  Geese. 


on  the  belly.  Bill  and  legs  are  a  reddish  orange.  The  females  are  good  lay- 
ers, young  geese  laying  18  to  24  eggs  in  the  season,  and  old  ones  30  to  36  or 
40.  This  breed  is  by  far  the  most  popular,  though  for  the  market  it  is  con- 
sidered inferior  to  some  others.  They  are  quiet,  and  the  best  suited  to  range 
without  water. 

381.  Embden  Geese  have  the  same  standards  for  weight  as  the  Toulouse, 
but  run  smaller.  In  color  they  are  white,  with  bill  and  legs  orange  yellow. 
They  are  less  widely  distributed  than  the  Toulouse,  and  many  of  the  Embdens 
in  this  country  are  very  poor  specimens.  As  layers  they  are  rather  poor. 
They  dress  better  for  the  market  than  any  other  breed. 


252 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


382.  African  Geese. — Rare  in  most  sections,  but  some  large  flocks  kept. 
Weights  same  as  for  Toulouse.  Color  gray;  upper  surfaces  dark  gray,  under 
surfaces  lighter ;  neck  light  gray,  with  longitudinal  dark  stripe  on  back  ;  bill 
black,  with  large  knob  at  the  base  of  the  upper  mandible ;  prominent  dew- 
lap under  the  throat  on  exhibition  birds,  inconspicuous  or  absent  in  many 


Fig.  93.    Embden  Goose. 


specimens ;  legs  dark  orange.  Better  layers  than  Embdens ;  not  as  good  as 
Toulouse.  Very  difficult  to  dress,  adult  birds  especially  so.  Having  dark 
pin-feathers  and  down  and  a  dark  skin,  do  not  make  as  attractive  a  carcass  as 
the  white  breeds. 


383.  Chinese  Geese  in  shape  resemble  the  African,  and  have  also  the 
knob  on  the  beak,  but  are  smaller.  Standard  weights  :  adult  gander,  14  Ibs.  ; 
young  gander,  10  Ibs.  ;  adult  goose,  12  Ibs.  ;  young  goose,  8  Ibs.  There  are 
two  varieties  :  — 

BROWN  CHINESE  GEESE  —  resemble  Africans  in  color  as  well  as  other 
points  mentioned.  They  are  the  most  prolific  of  all  varieties.  The  females 
generally  lay  forty  to  fifty  eggs  each  in  a  season,  and  the  eggs  are  remarkably 
fertile.  It  has  been  said  that  of  all  breeds  they  pluck  hardest,  and  look  worst 
when  dressed. 


PO UL  TR T-  CRAFT. 


253 


WHITE  CHINESE  GEESE — are  usually  smaller  than  the  Brown.  In  color 
they  are  pure  white,  with  orange  yellow  bill  and  legs.  As  layers  the  females 
equal  those  of  the  other  variety,  but  their  eggs  are  apt  to  be  infertile.  When 
dressed  they  rank  next  to  the  Embclens. 

384.  Wild    or    Canada   Geese  —  are   of   a    different   species   from   the 
domestic  goose,  and  in  structure  and  habits  more   resemble  swans.     Stand- 
ard weights  are  che  same  as  for  the  Chinese.     Color  very  dark  gray  ;    bill  and 
legs  black.     They  are  often  kept  in  captivity  as  ornamental  fowl,  and  in  such 
circumstances  rarely  breed.     When  bred  to  produce  birds  for  breeding  mon- 
grels they  are  given  more  liberty.     One  wing  is  crippled  to  prevent  flight. 

385.  Egyptian  Geese. — Standard  weights  :  adult  gander,  10  Ibs. ;  young 
gander,  8  Ibs. ;  adult  goose,  8  Ibs. ;  young  goose,  6  Ibs.     Purely  ornamental 
fowls,  handsomely  colored  with  black,  gray,  and  buff  ;    bills  purplish,  legs 
reddish  yellow. 

386.  Buying  Stock. — For  the  goose  breeder  it  is  particularly  desirable 
that  stock  should  be  purchased  early  in  the  fall.     If  purchased  near  the  begin- 
ning of  the  breeding  season,  the  birds  may  not  mate  satisfactorily ;  and  as  the 
female  is  not  likely  to  lay  well  until  acclimated  and  accustomed  to  new  sur- 
roundings, the  better  part  of  the  season  is  lost  even  when  the  birds  do  mate. 
Old  birds  are  more  desirable  as  breeders  than  young  ones.     Females  are  said 
to  be  profitable  up  to  ten  or  twelve  years  of   age,  and  males  to  the  age  of  six 
or  seven  years.     Thus  when  once  one  has  secured  a  flock  of  mated  birds  of 
such  numbers  as  he  requires,   he  may  if  so  disposed,  sell   his    entire    product 
each  year  for  a  number  of  years,  retaining  only   his  original  stock  birds. 
Prices  for  ordinary  good  breeding  stock  are  from   $3  to  $5   per  bird.     Eggs 
are  sold  generally  at  so  much  apiece,  —  25   cts.  to  50  cts.,  —  or  at  so  much  a 
dozen  —  $2.50  to  $5. 

387.  Mating  —  Points   for    the    Breeder. — (See   also   ff  193 — 214). 
Standard  specimens  of  both  sexes  are  used  in  matings  to  produce  exhibition 
stock,  in  all  varieties  of  geese,  and  generally  by  growers  using  thoroughbreds 
to  produce  market  stock,  most  of  whom  sell  as  many  as  possible  of  their  best 
birds  for  breeding. 

In  breeding  geese  for  market  only,  cross  breeding  is  usual  in  the  localities 
where  geese  are  grown  most  extensively.  A  mating  preferred  by  one  of  the 
best  growers  in  Rhode  Island  is :  —  African  ganders  with  common  white  or 
gray  geese.  This  mating  gives  goslings  larger  than  common  stock,  less  diffi- 
cult to  pick,  and  more  attractive  when  dressed  than  the  African.* 

*NOTE. —  Numerous  crosses  have  been  made  on  an  experimental  scale  at  the  Rhode 
Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  The  results  are  of  great  interest,  indicating 


254  POULTRT-CRAFT. 

The  mongrel,  hybrid,  geese  so  famous  in  the  markets,  are  usually  produced 
by  mating  wild  males  with  domestic  females,  preferably  dark  ones, — African, 
Toulouse,  or  Brown  Chinese.  The  reverse  mating, —  domestic  male  with 
wild  females  —  is  sometimes  used,  but  the  other  is  better,  as  the  wild  females 
lay  few  eggs.  The  wild  ganders  do  not  mate  until  two  or  three  years  old, 
and  often  will  not  mate  the  first  year  in  captivity.  Usually  they  mate  with 
but  one  goose. 

How  Many  Females  to  a  Male? — From  one  to  four.  Geese  are  disposed 
to  pair.  Young  ganders  often  take  up  with  only  one  goose.  Older  birds  will 
generally  mate  with  more.  One  breeder  of  Toulouse  geese  allows  two  geese 
to  each  gander.  A  breeder  who  gives  his  numerous  matings  a  common  range, 
mates  four  geese  with  one  gander ;  yards  them  by  themselves  the  first  season, 
and  puts  two  or  three  extra  ganders  with  the  large  flock. 

388.  Care  of  Breeding  Qeese. —  Geese  at  pasture  require  little  attention. 
If  kept  in  confinement,  they  must  be  provided  with  green  food,  not  fed  too 
heavily  on  grain,  and  care  taken  to  prevent  their  becoming  too  fat,  and  unfit 
for  breeding.  They  should  always  have  water  for  drinking,  and  frequently 
for  bathing.  If  shut  up  at  night,  the  place  must  be  cleaned  at  regular  inter- 
vals. Geese  do  not  generally  lay  until  near  spring,  though  occasionally  some 
lay  in  January.  Boxes  or  barrels  containing  straw,  hay,  or  suitable  litter,  are 
placed  in  corners  and  out  of  the  way  places  for  nests.  In  cold  weather  the 
eggs  must  be  removed  to  prevent  their  being  chilled.  It  is  advisable  always 
to  have  a  nest  egg  —  not  necessarily  a  goose  egg — any  kind  will  do.  To 
break  up  broody  geese  they  should  be  removed  for  four  or  five  days,  and  the 
nest  in  which  they  have  been  laying  destroyed  or  removed  to  a  new  position 
before  they  are  returned.  Methods  of  feeding  do  not  differ  much,  variations 
being  due  mostly  to  differences  in  pasture. 


how  by  crossing  a  market  breed  superior  to  any  of  the  established  breeds  might  be  pro- 
duced. For  the  ordinary  breeder  the  wisdom  of  crossing  except  under  conditions  as 
stated  in  IT  69,  or  to  produce  something  exceptional,  as  the  mongrel  goose,  is  question- 
able. For  those  who  may  find  it  advantageous  to  make  crosses,  results  of  a  few  of  the 
best  crosses  made  at  the  experiment  station  are  quoted  from  its  report :  — 

"  The  Embden-Toulouse  *  *  *  would  appear  to  be  the  best  all  around  cross  for  general 
purposes,  for  both  early  and  late  markets,  and  especially  for  the  production  of  large 
geese  for  the  Christmas  and  New  Year's  markets.  They  are  large,  hardy,  and  when 
dressed  present  a  fine  appearance." 

"  Of  those  here  compared  (African-Toulouse,  Toulouse-Embden,  Embden-African)  the 
Embden-African  seems  to  be  next  in  desirability,  and  if  goslings  are  sold  early  in  the 
summer,  or  before  they  are  eight  weeks  old,  this  cross  would  be  preferable  to  all  others." 

"  The  Embden-White  China  cross  picked  the  easiest  of  these  crosses,  were  white  when 
dressed,  and  although  small,  presented  the  most  attractive  appearance." 


PO  UL  TR  F-  CRA  FT.  255 

(1).  Feeding  Breeding  Geese. —  (WILBUR). —  Turn  out  on  pasture  from  June  until 
fall;  feed  no  grain  while  grass  is  available,  then  feed  lightly  of  oats  and  whole  corn. 
After  February  i,  give  full  ration  : — a  mixture  of  corn  meal,  shorts,  beef  scraps,  boiled 
potatoes  or  turnips  in  the  morning ;  whole  grain  in  the  afternoon. 

(2).  Feeding  Breeding  Geese. —  (NEWMAN).  —  They  must  have  a  pasture  where 
from  early  spring  they  will  live  almost  exclusively  on  green  rye,  clover  or  grass,  needing 
but  little  grain,  and  thriving  well.  Do  not  feed  much  corn  in  winter,  as  it  is  apt  to  get 
them  too  fat  for  breeders.  Oats  and  barley  are  better.  The  way  I  feed  is  this  :  —  I  take 
some  boxes  about  eight  inches  deep,  and  put  the  grain  in  them.  These  are  placed  in  the 
pasture  away  from  other  fowls.  One  need  not  be  careful  in  feeding  them  as  in  feeding 
other  poultry.  You  cannot  spoil  their  appetites,  and  by  putting  boxes  of  grain  in  the 
runs,  thev  get  a  good  run,  and  a  light  feed,  and  are  in  no  danger  of  overfeeding.  Give 
corn  only  in  the  hardest  weather  —  when  it  is  storming,  or  there  is  so  much  snow  they 
cannot  go  foraging. 

(3).  Feeding  Breeding  Geese. —  (RUDD). —  Adult  geese  can  be  turned  out  to 
pasture  precisely  the  same  as  cattle,  and  in  this  latitude  (Massachusetts)  will  obtain  their 
own  living  more  than  six  months  of  the  year,  during  which  the  cost  of  keeping  them  is 
simply  the  value  of  the  grass  consumed.  Through  the  laying  and  breeding  season,  in 
addition  to  grass  they  should  be  fed  twice  a  day  with  shorts  and  Indian  meal,  equal  parts, 
thoroughly  moistened  with  cold  water,  but  not  too  wet,  lest  it  produce  diarrhoea  ;  the  mass 
should  be  dry  enough  to  crumble.  (If  stale  bread  can  be  had  at  reasonable  prices,  soak 
it  and  use  instead  of  shorts).  Add  ten  per  cent  of  beef  scraps  or  its  equivalent.  Feed  all 
they  will  immediately  eat  up  clean.  Supply  shell  liberally,  and  abundance  of  water  to 
drink. 

389.  Hatching  Goslings. — As  geese  lay  so  few  eggs,  breeders  usually 
keep  the  geese  laying  as  long  as  possible,  and  hatch  most  of  the  eggs  with 
hens.     So  far,  hatching  goose  eggs  in  incubators  has  not  been  satisfactory. 
The  hens  are  given  five,  six,  or  seven  eggs  each,  according  to  size.     After 
five  or  six  days  the  eggs  can  be  tested,  and  infertiles  removed.     The  period  of 
incubation  is  usually  thirty  days.     It  may  be  a  little  longer.     When  the  eggs 
are  hatching  the  hens  should  be  closely  watched  to  prevent  the  goslings  being 
trampled  upon  or  killed  by  hens  that  will  not  own  them.     The  goslings,  as 
hatched,  should  be  given  to  quiet,  gentle  hens,  or  wrapped  in  flannel  and  kept 
in  a  warm  place. 

When  geese  are  used  to  hatch  the  eggs,  they  may  be  given  about  fifteen 
each.  Usually  they  must  be  set  where  they  have  been  laying.  They  will 
bear  little  interference  when  incubating. 

390.  Rearing  Goslings. — The   goslings    should   be   allowed  to  remain 
warm  and  quiet  for  at  least  twenty-four  hours  after  hatching,  and  for  the  first 
few  days  every  precaution  must  be  taken  to  prevent  their  being  chilled.     By 
the  time  they  are  a  week  old  they  need  no  artificial  heat  if  the  weather  is  at 
all  moderate.     They  do  not  require  much  care.     Until  strong  enough  to  have 
full  liberty  they  should   be    confined  to  small  movable  pens,  which  can  be 
moved  to  new  grass  each  day.     With  each  pen  some  sort  of  shelter  must  be 


256  PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 

provided  to  protect  them  from  sun  and  storm.  Their  sleeping  places  must  be 
kept  clean.  Other  items  of  management  requiring  special  mention  will  be 
found  included  in  the  methods  of  feeding  given  below  : 

(1).  Feeding  Goslings. — (NEWMAN). —  The  first  two  or  three  days  keep  them  in  a 
warm  place,  and  give  them  a  little  soaked  bread  and  water.  In  nice  weather,  turn  them 
out  in  small  inclosures  which  can  be  moved  every  day.  After  a  week,  let  them  go.  The 
first  four  or  five  weeks,  give  nothing  but  stale  bread  occasionally ;  but  always  leave  them 
at  liberty  to  get  all  the  grass  or  clover  they  want.  Do  not  soak  the  bread,  as  they  do  not 
like  it  so  well.  After  five  weeks,  give  a  mash  of  jf  bran  and  £  corn  meal.  To  fatten  — 
after  six  weeks, feed  £  bran,  £  corn  meal;  do  not  feed  it  sloppy.  Never  allow  goslings  to 
go  to  the  water  until  lully  feathered,  and  then  only  let  those  go  which  are  to  be  kept  for 
breeders. 

(2).  Feeding  Early  Goslings.— (RUDD).—  They  can  be  fed  at  first  on  J  Indian  meal 
and  jf  shorts,  wet  cold,  and  squeezed  almost  entirely  dry.  Sloppy  food  must  be  avoided. 
They  should  be  fed  as  often  as  hungry,  which  will  be  at  least  every  two  hours —  perhaps 
oftener.  The  important  points  at  this  stage  are  to  keep  them  warm,  dry,  and  supplied 
with  food.  As  they  grow  older  they  need  outdoor  air  and  exercise.  As  spring  advances 
and  grass  begins  to  grow,  they  can  be  put  in  movable  pens  on  the  grass.  When  three  or 
four  weeks  old  (depending  on  the  weather,  condition  of  grass,  etc.),  they  should  if  possible 
be  given  a  wide  range —  turned  out  to  pasture ;  but  the  enclosure,  of  whatever  size,  should 
be  fenced  gosling  proof.  They  should  be  fed  twice  a  day  with  |  shorts,  |  Indian  meal, 
thoroughly  wet,  then  squeezed  or  pressed  dry  —  all  they  will  immediately  eat  up  clean. 
The  drinking  vessels  should  never  be  empty.  If  they  are  to  be  fattened,  they  should  be 
confined  and  fed  less  shorts  and  more  meal,  adding  some  beef  scraps ;  gradually  increas- 
ing the  proportion  of  meal  and  beef  scraps  until  shorts  are  discontinued,  and  the  food  is 
about  10  per  cent  beef  scraps  and  90  per  cent  meal. 

(3).  Feeding  Goslings. — (CUSHMAN). — Goslings  are  better  off  if  they  get  nothing 
but  tender  grass  and  water  the  first  day  they  are  put  out,  or  before  they  are  48  hours  old. 
The  next  day  they  should  be  fed  two  or  three  times,  but  very  lightly,  with  scalded 
cracked  corn.  This  is  probably  as  good  food  as  can  be  given  from  then  on,  provided 
they  have  at  all  times  an  abundance  of  tender  grass  to  eat,  and  the  amount  of  cracked 
corn  fed  is  such  as  will  always  leave  them  hungry  for  grass.  An  exclusive  diet  of  grain 
or  dough,  without  plenty  of  grass,  or  too  great  a  quantity  even  with  grass,  will  spoil 
them  —  cause  them  to  lose  the  use  of  their  legs,  and  die.  If  grain  is  fed  sparingly  while 
they  are  young,  grass  being  three-fourths  of  the  food,  few  will  be  lost.  To  make  the 
best  growth  they  should  have  succulent  green  food  before  them  while  they  can  see  to  eat. 
If  shut  in  for  a  short  time  morning  or  evening,  or  on  a  stormy  day,  they  should  have  a 
continual  supply  of  freshly  mown  rye,  oats,  clover,  or  corn  fodder.  Otherwise  they  will 
fret  and  lose  much  in  weight.  When  the  object  is  to  raise  show  birds  of  great  size  and 
frame  at  maturity,  it  may  be  best  to  feed  oat  meal,  gluten  feed  and  bran  liberally,  as  well 
as  corn  and  grass  or  clover ;  but  there  will  be  less  uniformity  under  this  feeding,  and 
more  will  be  lost. 

391 .  Marketing  Geese. — Goslings  of  the  large  breeds  should  weigh  9  Ibs. 
to  12  Ibs.  each  at  ten  weeks  of  age ;  some  may  weigh  more.  As  a  rule  it  pays 
better  to  market  them  at  that  age  than  to  hold  them  until  mature.  Mongrels 
are  reserved  for  the  holiday  trade,  for  at  that  time  they  bring  more  per  pound 


PO  UJL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 


35? 


than  any  green  geese  but  the  earliest  on  the  market  bring  in  summer.  The 
demand  for  green  geese  begins  about  June  ist,  and  geese  are  in  demand  from 
then  until  March. 

Methods  of  KILLING,  DRESSING,  PACKING,  and  SHIPPING,  are  practically  the 
same  as  for  ducks,  and  do  not  require  special  description.  Remarks  on 
EXHIBITING  ducks  apply  also  to  geese. 

392.  About  Plucking  Geese  for  the  Feathers. — Whatever  may  be  said 
in  justification  of  this  practice,  the  fact  remains  that  it  is  cruel.  It  is  also  ques- 
tionable whether  on  the  whole  it  is  profitable.  To  -the  frequent  plucking  of 
geese  it  is  no  doubt  largely  due  that  so  many  of  those  sent  to  market  are 
of  very  poor  quality.  A  goose  which  .goes  through  an  enforced  moult  four  or 
five  or  more  times  (some  .authorities  ( ?)  advise  plucking  every  six  or  seven 
weeks)  cannot  produce  meat  of  fine  quality ;  — the  flesh  is  sure  to  be  tough  ,and 
stringy.  As  to  the  effect  of  plucking  on  breeding  stock,  Newman  says : 
''Their  feathers  are  an  item  -worth  ^considering,  but  do  not  pluck  your  geese 
twice  a  year  and  expect  them  to  be  good  breeders.  A  goose  so  treated  will 
not  lay  as  early,  nor  as  many,  nor  as  fertile  eggs,  as  one  that  is  left  to  go 
through  the  changes  naturally." 


258  PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAF1. 


APPENDIX. 


A  Little  General  Information  Concerning  the  Poultry  and  Allied   Industries. 

In  the  first  edition  of  this  work,  published  the  year  before  the  last  census  (1900),  the 
writer  gave  some  of  the  figures  of  estimates  of  values  of  poultry  products  at  the  time  of 
the  preceding  census,  and  offered  a  few  estimates  of  probable  figures  of  the  census  of 
1900.  On  the  supposition  that  the  rate  of  increase  in  poultry  products  kept  pace  with 
the  rate  of  increase  of  population — the  $er  capita  production  remaining  constant — it 
appeared  that  the  census  of  1900  would  show  poultry  products  to  the  value  of  $350,000,- 
ooo.  As,  however,  the  decade  from  1890  to  1900  witnessed  a  most  remarkable  and  wide- 
spread development  of  interest  in  poultry  culture,  it  was  assumed  that  there  had  probably 
been  a  greater  increase  in  production,  and  this  statement  was  made: — "It  need  surprise 
no  one  if  the  coming  census  shows  an  annual  production  of  eggs  and  poultry  approach- 
ing $400,000,000  in  value." 

When  the  census  figures  appeared  the  amount  was  actually  nearly  ten  millions  less  than 
in  1890.  No  one  at  all  conversant  with  the  facts  in  regard  to  the  production  of  poultry 
could  come  to  any  other  conclusions  than  that  either  the  census  of  1890  or  that  of  1900, 
or  both,  were  so  far  wrong  as  to  be  utterly  unreliable,  and  that  as  exact  statistics  their 
figures  were  probably  without  value.  Only  on  the  supposition  that  the  errors  of  enumer- 
ation probably  had  like  results  in  all  places,  was  it  possible  to  imagine  that  the  work  of 
enumerating  the  fowls  of  the  country  and  collecting  statistics  of  the  value  of  their 
produce  served  any  useful  purpose.  Assuming  that  the  errors  were  the  same  and  had 
practically  the  same  effects  everywhere,  the  figures  are  useful  as  data  for  comparisons  of 
the  relative  production  in  the  various  states  and  territories,  but  as  exact  information  they 
are  of  no  value  whatever.  They  merely  indicate  that  the  total  value  of  the  poultry  prod- 
ucts of  the  country  is  enormous,  while  their  unreliability  furnishes  a  striking  illustration 
of  the  lack  of  information  among  poultry  keepers  on  matters  of  vital  importance  to  them 
and  of  the  failure  of  the  census  bureau  to  adequately  provide  for  the  collecting  of  statis- 
tics regarded  as  of  great  importance. 

In  the  opinion  of  the  writer  the  census  of  1890  was  probably  more  accurate  than  that  of 
1900.  This  opinion  is  based  on  the  fact  that  numerous  local  or  state  enumerations 
between  1890  and  1900  seemed  to  confirm  the  1890  estimates,  while  the  plan  adopted  for 
1900  census  was  very  faulty,  and  did  not  provide  for  anything  like  a  full  enumeration  of 
poultry  stocks.  The  figures — correct  or  not — are  so  large  that  the  mind  fails  to  get  any 
adequate  conception  of  what  they  represent,  but  it  is  possible  to  put  them  in  a  light  that 
will  give  the  reader  some  idea  of  the  volume  of  the  produce  of  the  domestic  fowls  of  the 
country,  and  also  enable  him  to  form  an  independent  opinion  as  to  the  accuracy  of  the 
census  figures. 

There  are  some  five  and  three-quarter  millions  of  farms  in  the  United  States,  and  on 
nearly  all  of  these  fowls  are  kept.  A  farm  where  there  is  not  a  flock  of  fowls  sufficient 
to  provide  eggs  and  poultry  for  home  consumption  is  a  rarity,  and  on  the  average  farm 


POULJ RT- CRAFT.  259 

the  eggs  and  poultry  sold  amount  each  year  to  enough  to  be  an  item  of  some  importance. 
The  figures  of  the  last  census  allow  an  average  value  of  less  than  one  dollar  per  week  for 
each  farm  in  the  United  States — this  for  both  eggs  and  poultry.  Large  figures  do  not 
always  seem  so  large  when  analyzed.  It  doesn't  take  a  very  large  flock — or  a  very  pro- 
ductive one — to  produce  that  much. 

The  census  figures  take  no  account  of  poultry  not  on  farms  —  except  where  fowls 
enough  are  kept  to  require  one  man's  time,  or  its  equivalent.  Yet  there  are  millions  of 
small  flocks,  and  many  thousands  of  large  ones,  in  cities,  towns,  and  villages  which 
cannot  properly  be  excluded  from  any  enumeration  of  our  poultry  resources.  Indeed,  it 
is  well  known  to  those  engaged  in  the  various  occupations  which  have  developed  out  of 
the  necessities  of  poultry  culture  that  it  is  upon  the  town  and  village  poultry  keepers 
rather  than  upon  the  more  numerous  poultry  keepers  on  farms  that  these  allied  occupa- 
tions and  industries  depend  for  sustenance. 

As  a  rule  it  is  not  the  farmers  who  read  papers,  who  buy  supplies  of  various  kinds, — 
incubators,  brooders,  bone  cutters,  feed  troughs,  drinking  fountains,  meat  scraps,  oyster 
shell,  charcoal,  grit,  cut  clover,  etc.,  who  support  the  hundreds  of  poultry  shows  and 
the  scores  of  poultry  journals  with  their  thousands  of  advertisers.  A  few  farmers  are 
interested  in  these  things — the  many  are  not.  They  get  their  support  from  the  city  and 
town  poultry  keepers,  and  from  only  a  fraction  of  these,  the  greater  number  being  quite 
indifferent.  In  short,  the  shows,  the  journals,  and  the  allied  industries  depend  for  sup- 
port principally  upon  that  small  proportion  of  town  poultry  keepers,  and  still  smaller 
proportion  of  farm  poultry  keepers  which  takes  an  active,  intelligent,  and  progressive 
interest  in  deriving  pleasure  or  profit,  or  pleasure  and  profit  from  poultry. 

For  these  people  is  provided  a  literature  which  discusses  the  subjects  of  interest  to  them 
in  detail  and  more  exhaustively  than  any  other  branch  of  agriculture  or  stock  interest,  or 
any  recreation  having  its  own  special  literature.  They  support  nearly  four  hundred 
special  poultry  shows  each  year.  Their  requirements  for  the  animal  food  which  forms 
but  a  small  percentage  of  the  diet  of  their  fowls  create  a  demand  to  which  large  packing 
companies  find  it  worth  while  to  cater,  because  it  furnishes  a  market  for  some  most 
important  by-products  which  otherwise  would  be  sold  as  fertilizer,  and  it  is  a  cash 
market,  while  fertilizers  are  sold  on  long  credit. 

Within  a  few  years  there  have  sprung  up  several  scores  of  incubator  manufactories, 
and  though  it  would  seem  that  the  business  must  inevitably  soon  be  overdone,  so  far 
the  demand  has  been  such  that  it  has  absorbed  practically  everything  offered  it. 
There  may  —  there  probably  will  come  a  time  when  the  supply  will  exceed  the  demand, 
and  when  the  concerns  that  lack  financial  stability  will  be  shaken  down,  but  the  number 
of  poultry  keepers  not  yet  interested  in  efforts  to  make  poultry  pay  as  well  as  possible  is 
so  great,  and  the  rate  of  increase  in  interest  so  rapid  that  he  would  be  a  rash  man  who 
would  venture  to  mark  bounds  for  the  development  of  these  great  industries  which  have 
grown  up  with  the  general  improvement  of  the  condition  of  small  stocks  of  poultry. 

In  writing  of  the  subject  of  profits  in  poultry  in  the  paragraph  devoted  to  that  matter 
in  the  first  chapter  of  this  book  the  writer  purposely  refrained  from  saying  anything  of 
the  volume  of  business  done  by  or  of  the  probable  annual  net  incomes  of  the  most 
successful  poultry  keepers,  because  these  exceptional  cases  should  not  be  used  in  making 
estimates  of  probable  returns  from  poultry,  and  it  was  thought  best  not  to  introduce 
anything  there  that  would  divert  the  mind  of  the  reader  from  the  statements  made  about 
usual  —  probable  results  and  returns.  Beginners  are  always  apt  at  making  estimates  on 
the  supposition  that  they  will  do  at  least  nearly  as  well  as  the  best,  and  the  beginners' 
estimates  are  almost  always  away  beyond  his  actual  results.  However,  it  is  natural  that 
everyone  interested  in  making  poultry  profitable  should  want  to  know  something  of  how 
much  the  most  successful  poultrymen  make,  and  right  that  the  information  should  be 
given  them. 


260  PQ  UL  TR  r-  CRA  FT. 

The  largest  business  in  fancy  .poultry  in  this  country  brings  its  owner  a  gro*s  income 
approaching  $25,000  a  year.  Probably  no  other  breeder  .does  a  business  much  more  than 
half  *s  large  as  this,  though  there  are  several  selling  more  than  $12,000  worth  of  fowls 
and  eggs  a  year.  The  figures  representing  the  net  income  —  the  "actual  .profits  —  in  these 
cases  are  not  given  out,  but  without  doubt  in  some  years  the  profits  amount  to  fully 
2  5  per  cent  of  the  gross  sales.  In  other  years  the  profits  on  this  large  volume  of  business 
may  be  much  smaller.  The  average  it  probably  considerably  less  than  25  per  cent  of 
sales. 

The  gross  safes  on  -some  of  the  largest  practical  poultry  plants  are  very  much  greater. 
There  are  at  least  several  farm*  which  sell  more  than  $50,000  df  produce  annually,  and 
which  in  the  test  year*  probably  net  the  owners  $12^000  to  $15,000. 

From  sudh  results  as  these  we  'have  all  grades  downward  to  the  man  who  makes  a  bare 
living,  and  the  other  who  makes  less  than  a  living  and  plods  along,  going  deeper  and 
deeper  in  debt  until  credit  and  courage  are bdth  exhausted. 

It  is  .plainly  evident  to  -anyone  in  touch  with  the  industry,  however,  that  the  propor- 
tion of  those  who  go  into  the  business  and  stay  is  steadily  increasing,  and  that  graduall  y 
the  business  is  being  placed  on  a  better  basis.  Indeed  the  proportion  of  persons  whose 
interest  in  poultry -is  a  serious  and  dignified  interest  ha*s  so  much  increased  that  the 
whole  tone  of  the  poulfery  press  is  changed,  and  where  a  dozen  years  ago  many  poultry 
journals  contained  a  good  many  articles  which  were  hardly  more  than  frivolous,  that  class 
of  matter  is  now  rarely  met  with  in  their  columns.  Much  that  is  of  little  value  is  *till 
published,  but  with  serious  purpose. 

The  general  public,  unfortunately,  is  in  somewhat  of  the  same  mind  about  interest  in 
poultry  that  the  cheerful  '-chicken  crank  of  years  ago  displayed.  Still  the  public,  like  the 
poultrymen,  !rn*kesiprogres*,and  it  is  not  too  much  to  expect  that  another  decade  ot  such 
progress  as  the  last  has  seen  will  make  a  radical  difference  in  the  attitude  of  the  general 
public  toward  those  who  are  interested  in  domestic  poultry.  This  is  to  be  desired  not  so 
much  on  account  of  the  poultrymen  who  are  but  little  concerned  as  to  what  others  may 
think  about  their  interest  in  fowls,  as  because  failing  to  appreciate  the  extent  of  the 
industry  and  the  demands  which  it  makes  on  the  brains  of  those  -who  engage  in  it,  the 
average  outsider  is  apt,  when  toe  refeat*  to  it,  to  do  *o  in  terms  which  do  his  intelligence 
no  credit,  and  often  make  ttfm  ridiculous  in  the  eyes  of  well  informed  persons. 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT.  rti 


AUTHOR'S   NOTE. 


When  this  book  was  written  five  years  ago  each  chapter  was  put  in  type  as  soon  as 
written,  and  the  pages  plated.  Thus  there  was  no  opportunity  for  a  general  revision  of 
the  work,  and  at  that  time,  and  for  several  years  following,  I  thought  that  when  the  time 
came  to  get  out  a  new  edition  of  the  book  I  would  make  many  minor  alterations  in  it  and 
perhaps  omit  one  chapter  and  substitute  other  matter  for  it.  But  as  time  went  by  and 
the  book  made  some  reputation-  on  such  merit  as  it  possessed,  I  became  more  and  more 
disinclined  to  make  such  alterations,  and  finally  concluded  to  make  none  but  a  few  insig- 
nificant and  unessential  ones  made  necessary  by  the  different  mechanical  make  up  of  this 
edition. 

This  conclusion  was  reached  because  I  did  not  want  to  have  in  the  hands  of  poultry 
keepers  two  editions  of  the  book,  the  same  in  general  features  and  treatment,  but  differ- 
ing in  many  places,  and  I  may  say  here  for  the  information  of  any  readers  of  this  edition 
disposed  to  write  me,  as  many  of  the  readers  of  the  first  edition  have,  asking  whether  I 
proposed  to  change  certain  things  in  the  book,  or  what  changes  would  be  made  in  a  new 
edition,  that  it  is  altogether  improbable  that  any  changes  in  the  text  of  the  book  will 
erer  be  made  by  me. 

To  say  that  I  think  I  could  take  the  same  plan  today  and  write  a  better  book  is  merely 
to  say  that  I  think  I  hare  in  five  years  of  exceptional  opportunity  grown  a  little  in.  knowl- 
edge of  poultry  culture  and  in  ability  to  impart  it.  But  there  have  been  no  such  radical 
changes  either  in  my  views  or  in  poultry  conditions  as  to  require  any  substantial  changes 
in  the  work,  and  so  I  prefer  to  let  "Poultry-Craft"  remain  practically  unchanged  as  long 
as  it  can  fill  the  demand  which  called  it  into  existence.  By  the  time  it  shall  have  become 
a  back  number  I  hope  to  have  substituted  for  it  several  other  books  which  together  will 
cover  the  same  ground  in  much,  the  same  way,  but  more  fully,  extending  as  much  as  any 
reader  could  desire  many  points  which  the  limits  of  this  work  made  it  necessary  to  treat 
very  briefly. 

There  is  still,  and  probably  will  be  for  many  years,  a  good  demand  for  a  book  of  this 
kind.  There  is  also  a  growing  demand  for  a  work — too  large  for  the  compass  of  a  single 
volume — which  will  treat  the  whole  list  of  poultry  topics  at  such  length  as  is  necessary 
to  give  full  instruction  to  those  who  are  seeking  to  make  books  supplement  the  practical 
teachings  of  experience  in  the  poultry,  yard.  While  to  meet  the  latter  demand  we  have 
only  a  few  loosely  compiled' pamphlets  which,  however  good  in  parts,  Hick  the  unity  of 
purpose  and  systematic  treatment  of  topics  without  whichvno  book  can  make  a  permanent 
impression,  it  seems  to  me  that  it  would  be  a  mistake  to  give  time  to  the  rewriting  of  a 
book  which  has  the  hold  on  the  public  to  which  the  volume  of  the  sales  of  "Poultry- 
Craft"  bear  witnew,  and  not  rather  to  devote  all  time  available  fop  such  work  to-*  series 
of  supplementary  books  which  wilt  meet  the  demand  for  greater  detail. 

Reading,  Mass.  JOHN  H.  ROBINSON. 


262 


PO  UL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 


INDEX. 


Abbreviations  of  names  of  varieties,  So. 
Accompanying  exhibits,  207. 
Adapting  business  to  location,  19. 
Advertising,  195. 
African  geese,  251. 
Age  for  weaning  chicks,  181. 
of  breeding  stock  : 

chickens,  151. 

ducks,  240. 

geese,  253. 

turkeys,  226. 
eggs  for  hatching,  168. 
Ailments  of  chicks,  preventing,  180. 
Airing  eggs  in  incubators,  178. 
Alfalfa,  98. 
Alternate  yards,  21. 
American  Dominiques,  68. 
Poultry  Association,  12. 
Standard  of  Perfection,  79. 
Anaemia,  212. 

Analysis  of  foods  (table),  112. 
Andalusians,  74. 
Animal  meal,  97. 

Anticipating  weather  changes,  131. 
Apoplexy,  212. 

Approval,  selling  stock  on,  199. 
Artificial  methods,  general  remarks  on,  175. 
Ash,  no. 

Ashes,  using,  on  droppings  boards,  127. 
Aylesbury  ducks,  237. 

Balanced  ration,  a,  101. 
Balancing  rations,  examples,  117. 

use  of  mash  in,  103. 
Bantams,  care  of,  217. 

description  of  varieties  of,  220* 

profit  in,  217. 
Barley,  95. 

screenings,  95. 


Barred  Plymouth  Rocks,  description,  65. 

mating,  155. 
Bed  bugs,  215. 
Beef,  raw,  97. 

scraps,  97. 

Beginning  with  eggs  or  stock,  90. 
small  capital,  13. 

without  capital,  13. 
Black  R.  C.  Bantams,  219. 

Cayuga  ducks,  238. 

Cochin  Bantams,  220. 

Cochins,  71. 

East  Indian  ducks,  239. 

Hamburgs,  76. 

Javas,  68. 

Langshans,  72. 

Leghorns,  73. 

Minorcas,  74. 

Orpingtons,  78. 

Polish,  W.  C.,  75- 

Spanish,  75. 

turkeys,  225. 

varieties,  mating,  160. 

Wyandottes,  67. 
Blackhead,  232. 
Blood,  dried,  97. 
Blue  Andalusians,  74. 
Bone  cutters,  60. 
Bones,  dry,  100. 

green,  97. 

Boxes  for  droppings,  45. 
'.  v:    grit  and  shell,  56. 

nest,  see  Nests. 
Bowel  trouble,  212,  180. 
Brahma  Bantams,  220. 
Brahmas,  Dark,  description,  69. 
„*£$..;.       mating,  158;     . 

Light,  description,  69. 
mating,  158. 


POULTR  T-  CRA  f  T. 


263, 


Bran,  wheat,  94. 

rye,  96. 

Bread,  waste,  97. 
Breakdown  behind,  212. 
Breeding  ducks,  points  on,  239. 
geese,  care  of  t  254. 
season  for  chickens,  161. 

ducks,  240. 
stock,  care  of,  162. 

selling,  197. 

Breeds,  comparison  of,  62,  63. 
description  of  : 
Bantams,  218. 
chickens,  64. 
ducks,  236. 
geese,  251. 
turkeys,  224. 
for  a  breeder,  84. 
city  lot,  86. 
fancier,  86. 
farmer,  85. 
village  lot,  86. 
to  be  avoided,  84. 
Brick  poultry  house,  a,  27. 
Broiler  raising  not   profitable  as  an  exclu- 
sive business,  10. 
Broilers,  market  for,  189. 

packing  for  shipment,  192. 
profit  in,  9. 
rations  for,  106 — 7. 
weights  of,  189. 
Broken  bones,  212. 

feathers,    plucking    before    exhibition, 

205. 

Bronchitis,  212. 
Bronze  turkeys,  225. 
Brooder  houses  for  pipe  system,  46. 

separate  brooders,  49. 
Brooders,  59. 

care  of  chicks  in,  179. 

ducklings  in,  244. 
for  young  turkeys,  225. 
nursery,  47. 
temperature  in,  180. 
Broodiness,  causing,  137. 
Broody  hens,  breaking  up,  140. 
coops  for,  56. 
sick,  140. 

Broom  corn  seed,  96. 
Brown  eggs —  where  in  demand,  82. 
Leghorns,  description,  72. 
mating,  156. 


Buckwheat,  96. 

middlings,  96. 
Buff  Cochin  Bantams,  220. 

Cochins,  70. 

Laced  Polish,  75. 

Leghorns,  73. 

Orpingtons,  78. 

P.  Rocks,  66. 

turkeys,  225. 

varieties  mating,  160. 

Wyandottes,  67. 
Buffalo  or  turkey  gnats,  215. 
Builders,  hints  to,  50. 
Bumble  foot,  212. 
Business,  adapting  to  location,  19. 

duck  keeping,  233. 

locating  for,  17,  18. 

poultry  keeping  as  a,  7. 

risks  in  poultry  keeping,  8. 

the  poultry,  not  overdone,  5. 
as  an  investment,  n. 
Buying  breeding  ducks,  239. 
geese,  253. 
stock,  general  remarks  on,  87,  89. 

building  materials,  51. 

eggs  for  hatching,  90. 

land  for  a  poultry  plant,  19. 

old  stock,  90. 

supplies  in  quantity,  100. 


Call  ducks,  238. 

Calory,  definition,  in. 

Canada  geese,  253. 

Canker,  212. 

Capital,  beginning  with  small,  13. 

how  much,  9. 
Caponizing,  185. 
Capons,  dressing,  192. 

weights  of,  189. 
Carbohydrates,  no. 
Carbonaceous  foods,  definition,  no. 
Catching  ducks,  246. 

turkeys,  231. 
Cat  proof  coop,  58. 
Cats,  to  keep  away,  216. 
Cayuga  ducks,  238. 
Cellars,  incubator,  46. 
Charcoal,  100. 
Cheese,  99. 
Chicken  corn,  96. 

pox,  212. 


264 


POUL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


Chicks,  colors  of  when  hatched,  172. 

cooping,  173. 

coops  for,  56. 

deformed  and  puny  —  should  be  killed, 
171. 

in  brooders,  care  of,  17.9. 

keeping  free  from  lice,  172. 

marking,  171. 

preventing  ailments  of^  180. 

rations  for,  106 — 8. 

rearing  in  confinement,  182. 

roosting  coops  for,  58. 

teaching  to  roost,  182. 

water  for,  173. 

weaning,.  181. 

what  to  do  when  they  are  hatching  in 
incubators,  179. 

under  hens,  170. 
Chiggers,  215. 

Children,  poultry  keeping  for,  15, 
Chilling,  effects  of — on  incubated  eggs,  170. 
Cholera,  212. 
Chop,  corn,  93. 

mixed,  93. 

City  poultry  keeping,  breeds  for,  86. 
Clams,  97. 

Classification  of  poultry  keepers,,  7. 
Cleanliness,  general  remarks  on,  127,  241. 

(see  also,  Hotu  often-  to  clean}. 
Clover,  98. 

Cob  and  corn  meal,  93. 
Cochin  Bantams,  220. 
Cochins,  70. 

C.  O.  D.,  shipping  poultry,  197. 
Colds,  132,  212. 
Colony  plan,  26. 
Color  of  market  eggs,  82. 

Pekin  duck  eggs,  2.37. 
Colored  Dorkings,  73. 
Colors  of  chicks  when  hatched,  172. 
Combination  of  fancy  and  market  poultry, 
18. 

the  profitable,  in>paultny  keeping,  9. 
Combining  poultry  keeping  with  other  busi- 
ness, 10. 

Commission  merchants,  selling  to,  r8S — 9. 
Common  chickens,  61 — 2. 

ducks,  236. 

geese,  250. 

turkeys,  225. 

Comparison  of  branches  of  poultry  keep- 
ing, 10. 


Comparison  of  breeds,  general  remarks,  62-, 

63. 

(see  also    remarks   in  descriptions 
of  varieties  of  fowls). 
of  methods  of  feeding,  103. 
Complete  plant  under  cover,  42. 
Compromise  matings,  148;, 
Condition  and  egg  production,  134. 
of  breeding  stock,  150. 
powders,  99. 

Confinement,  care  of  breeding  geese  in,  254. 
ducks  adapted  to,  23-3. 
keeping  breeding  stock  (hens)  in,  162. 

turkeys  in,  224. 
rearing  chicks  in,  182. 

market  ducks  in,  245. 
Constipation,  212. 
Consumption,  212. 
Contamination,  152. 
Continuous,  or  sectional,  houses,  29. 
Control  of  sex,  152. 
Cookers,  feed,  60. 
Cooking  food,  103. 
Cooling  dressed  poultry,  192. 
duck  eggs,  243. 
eggs  in  incubators,  178. 
Coop,  cat  and  hawk  proof,  58. 
exhibition,  207. 

roosting,  for  weaned  chicks,  58. 
Cooping  young  chicks,  173. 
ducklings,  245. 
goslings,  255. 
turkeys,  228. 

Coops  for  broody  hens,  56. 
little  chicks,  56. 
shipping,  exhibition  and  breeding 

stock,  199. 

live  poultry  to  market,  190. 
Corn,  92. 

an  all  corn  ration  for  turkeys,  230. 
broom,  96. 
chicken,  96. 
chop,  93. 
Egyptian,  96. 
fed  hens  lay  best  eggs,  142. 
Kaffir,  96.  " 
meal,  92. 

Cornish  Indian  Games,  78. 
Correspondence,  197. 
Cotton  seed  meat,  97. 
Cracked  corn,  9-3, 
Cracker  crumbs,  97. 


POUL  TR  r-  CRAFT, 


Cracklings,  917. 

Cramp,  212. 

Crested  White  ducks,  239; 

Crevecoeur,  76. 

Crop  bound,  213. 

enlarged,  213. 

inflammation  of,  213. 
Cross  bred,  definition,  61. 
geese,  250,  253. 

breeding,  62,  154. 
Cull  stock,  selling,  194. 
Culling  growing  chicks,  183. 

in  fall,  132. 

laying  hens  in  summer,  138. 
Curd,  99. 

Damaged  food,  93,  100. 

Dampness  objectionable,  21,   127,  128,  222, 

235- 

Dark  Brahmas  —  description,  69. 
mating,  159* 

nests,  54. 
Debility,  general,  213. 

in  growing  chicks,  184. 

Debt,  importance  of  keeping  out  of,  13,  19. 
Deformed  chicks,  171. 
Depluming  scab  mites,  216. 
Desiccated  fish,  98. 
Diarrhoea,  213. 
Diphtheria,  213. 
Diphtheritic  roup,  note,  210. 
Diseases,  descriptions  and  remedies  of,  211. 

general  rules  for  preventing,  210. 

hints  to  guide  in  diagnosing,  211. 

of  ducks,  247. 

turkeys,  231. 
Distemper,  213,  132. 
Doctoring,  unprofitableness  of,  209. 
Dominique  Leghorns,  74. 
Dominiques,  American,  68. 
Dorkings,  77. 

Double  matings,  155 — 6.    (Note6i,  65). 
Drainage,   21. 
Dressed  poultry,  exhibiting,  208. 

packing,  192. 

in  warm  weather^  193. 

shipping  in  cold  weather,  193. 
Dressing  chickens,  tcp* 

ducks,  246. 

geese,  257. 

turkeys,  231. 
Dried  blood,  97. 


Drinking  vessels,  55. 
cleaning,  128. 

water,  warming,  135. 
Drooping  wings  in  young  cnicks,  181. 
Droppings  boards,  53. 

boxes  for,  45. 

how  often  to  remove,  127. 

selling,  127.  (Note). 
Dry  picking  poultry,  191. 
Duck  eggs,  care  of,  241. 

growing  adapted  to  all  sections,  235. 

general  remarks  on,  233. 
Ducklings,  brooding  artificially,  244. 
with  hens,  245. 

care  of  after  weaning,  245. 

feather  pulling  in,  248. 

feeding,  244. 

hatching  in  incubators,  243. 

with  hens,  245. 
Ducks,  descriptions  of  breeds  of,  236. 

diseases  of,  247. 

dressing,  246. 

exhibiting,  247. 

houses  and  yards  for,  235. 

packing  and  shipping  to  market,  247. 

profit  in,  234. 

to  tell  sex  of,  246. 

when  to  market,  246. 
Durra,  96. 

Earth  floor,  best,  24. 

renewing,  39. 
East  Indian  ducks,  239. 
Eaves,  to  make  joints  at,  wind-tight,  39. 
Egg  bound,  213. 
Egg  breed,  what  is  an,  63. 
broken  in  body,  213. 
eatfng,  141. 
foods,  99. 

production,  average  of,  123. 
effect  of  condition  on,  134. 

weather  en,  I2j. 
general  remarks  on,  i2-f . 
record,  keeping  a-»,  142. 
testers,  169. 
*ype>  124. 
yield,  factors  of  a  good1,  rty. 

what  is  a  good,  63. 
Eggs,  care  of  duck,  241. 

chilled  during  incubation,  170? 
double,  141. 
exhibiting,  208. 


266 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


Eggs,  for  hatching,  age  of,  168. 
buying,  90. 
care  of,  163. 

packing  for  shipment,  201. 
selling,  200. 
marketing,  187. 
miscarriage  of,  141. 
misshapen,  141. 

moistening,  during  incubation,  170. 
nest,  not  necessary,  142. 
pale-yolked,  142. 

quality  of,  affected  by  food  and  condi- 
tion, 142. 
shipping,    to    commission    merchants, 

188. 

small,  141. 
soft  shelled,  141. 
testing,  169. 
watery,  142. 
winter,  123. 
Egyptian  corn,  96. 

geese,  253. 
Elements,  food,  109. 
Embden  geese,  251. 
Enlarged  crop,  213. 
Enteritis,  213. 
Excelsior  meal  bread,  108. 
Exercise  for  heavy  fowls,  125. 
how  much,  125. 
what  kind  of,  124. 
Exhibiting   poultry,   general   remarks    on, 

203. 

Exhibition  coops,  207. 
Games,  78. 
stock,  general  care  of,  203. 

special  preparation  of,  204. 

Fall  management  of  laying  stock,  129. 
False  or  foul  feathers,  plucking,  205. 
Family  poultry,  13. 

trade,  hints  on  selling  to,  193. 
Fanciers,  breeds  for,  86. 
Fancy,  keeping  poultry  for,  14. 

poultry,  combining  with  market,  18. 
Farm,  breeds  for,  85. 

flock,  continuous  house  for,  30. 
Farmers'  mistake  in  breeding,  147. 
Farming,  duck,  233. 

poultry,  17. 
Fat,  effect  of  feeding  to  excess,  in. 

how  to  reduce,  125. 
Fats,  no. 


Fattening  affected  by  conditions,  102. 

for  methods  of  fattening,  see  Rations. 
Feather  eating,  213. 

in  ducklings,  248. 
Feathers,  plucking  foul,  205. 

geese  for,  257. 
Feed  cookers,  60. 

how  much  to,  104. 
often  to,  104. 

mixers,  60. 

troughs,  54. 

keeping  clean,  128. 
Feeding  breeding  ducks,  242. 
geese,  255. 

damaged  foods,  93,  100. 

for  special  results,  102. 

grain  in  litter,  126. 

laying  hens  in  extreme   cold  weather, 
135- 

warm  winter  weather,  136. 
spring,  136. 
summer,  138. 

turkeys,  226. 

little  chickens,  173. 

methods  compared,  103. 

moulting  hens,  129. 

onions,  98. 

potatoes,  98. 

requires  skill,  108. 

science  in,  109. 

sitting  hens,  168. 

special  —  before  exhibition,  206. 

standards,  use  of,  116. 

stimulants,  99. 

turkeys  from  shell  to  market,  228. 

when  the  days  are  short,  133. 
Fiber,  digestibility  of,  1 10. 
Fish,  desiccated,  98. 

feeding  to  ducks,  245. 

scrap,  98. 
Fleas,  215. 
Floor,  earth — best,  24. 

keeping  clean,  127. 

renewing  earth,  39. 

to  keep  scratching  in  order,  126. 
Food,  cooking,  103. 

elements,  109. 

need  of  variety  of,  101. 

requirements  of  fowls,  101,  109. 

value,  in. 
Foods,  analysis  of,  (table),  112. 

changing,  102. 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


267 


Foods,  using  damaged,  93,  100. 

Foreign  breeds,  79. 

Fowls,  kinds  of  described,  61. 

compared,  62. 
Frizzles,  79, 
Frost-bite,  213. 
Fumigating,  215. 

Game  Bantams,  218. 
Games,  Cornish  Indian,  78. 
Exhibition,  78. 
Malay,  79. 
Pit,  78. 
Gapes,  213. 

Geese,  descriptions  of  varieties,  251. 
houses  and  fences  for,  250. 
kinds  of,  250. 
mating,  253. 
profit  in,  250. 
General  purpose  fowls,  63. 
Gentleness  in  handling  ducks,  241. 

hens,  134. 
Giddiness,  213. 
Gnats,  215. 

Golden  Hamburgs,  76. 
Polish,  75. 
Wyandottes,  description,  67. 

mating,  158. 

Goose  culture,  general  remarks  on,  249. 
Grade,  definition,  61. 
Grading,  advantage  of,  62. 
Green  bone,  97. 
ducks,  233. 
geese,  250. 
Grit,  loo. 

boxes  for,  56. 
crushers,  60. 

Hamburgs,  description,  76. 

mating,  160. 
Hatching,  care  of  chicks  after,  171. 

chicks  in  incubators,  175 — 179. 
with  hens,  165 — 171. 

ducklings  in  incubators,  243. 
with  hens,  245. 

goslings,  255. 

turkeys,  227. 
Hawk  proof  coop,  58. 
Hay,  98. 

cutters,  60. 
Helping  chicks  out  of  shell,  170. 

ducklings  out  of  shell,  244. 


Heredity,  144. 

Horse  meat  as  poultry  food,  97. 
Hospital  for  fowls,  need  of,  214. 
Houdans,  description,  78. 

mating,  160. 
House,  a  two  pen,  28. 

continuous  for  farm  flock,  29. 
with  walk,  30. 
without  walk,  29,  39. 
for  town  lot,  24. 
monitor  top,  32. 
scratching  shed  with  walk,  37. 

without  walk,  34. 
semi-monitor  top,  34. 
with  scratching  shed  underneath,  25. 
two  rows  of  pens  and   passage    in 

the  middle,  32. 
Houses,  brooder,  46. 
colony  plan,  27. 
duck,  235. 

for  complete  plant  under  cover,  42. 
geese,  250. 
turkeys,  222. 
keeping  clean,  127. 
How  eggs  are  sent  to  market,  187. 

many  breeds  should  a  poultryman  keep, 

81. 

many  females  to  a  male  : 
chickens,  152. 
ducks,  240. 
geese,  254. 
turkeys,  226. 

many  eggs  does  a  fowl  lay  : 
duck,  240. 
hen,  123. 
goose,      in      descriptions      of 

breeds,  251. 
turkey,  226. 
much  exercise,  125. 
income,  8. 
land,  19. 

room  per  fowl,  50. 
to  feed,  104. 

to  spend  in  advertising,  195. 
often    to     feed,    104,     133,    (see    also 

Rations) . 
to  get  satisfactory  stock,  80. 

learn  poultry  keeping,  12. 
Hulled  oats,  95. 

ced  poultry,  packing,  193. 
nbreeding,  153. 


POUL  TR  r-  CRAFT. 


Income  from  poultry,  4. 
Incubation,  period  of: 

duck  eggs,  243. 

hen  eggs,  177. 

goose  eggs,  255. 

turkey  eggs,.  227. 
Incubator  cellars,  46. 
Incubators,  58. 

management  of,  175. 
Indian  Runner  ducks,  239. 
Games,  description,  78. 

mating,  159, 
Indigestion,  213. 
Inflammation  of  crop,  213. 

liver,  2.13. 

Inheritance,  law  of.,.  144. 
Introducing  new  blood,  153. 
Insect  powders,  215. 
Invalids,  poultry  keeping  for,  15. 
Investment,  poultry  keeping  for,  n. 
Itch,  213. 

Japanese  Bantams,  220. 

Javas,  68. 

Johnnycake,  directions  for  making,  107. 

Joints  at  eaves,  to  make  wind  tight,  39. 

Kaffir  corn,  96. 

Keeping  chicks  growing,  181. 

Kerosene  emulsion,  2.1,5, 

for  lice,  215. 
Killing  poultry,  methods  of,.  19^1 ,  246. 

Land,  buying  for  poultry  plant,  19. 

how  much,  19. 
LaFlechfi,  76. 
Lameness,  213. 
Lamp,  care  of,  175. 
Langshans,  71. 
Lard  cracklings,  97. 
Late  hatched  pullets,  when  doers,  it  pay  to 

keep  them,  1,29* 
Law  of  inheritance,  144. 
Lay,  to  make.  he.ns,  while  brooding  chicks, 

174- 

Laying  hens,  fall  management  of,  129. 
late  culling  of,  132.. 
selecting^  124. 
spring  care  of,  136. 
summer  care  of,  137. 
qualities  and  size,  134. 
stock,  selecting  breeders  to  produce, .150. 


Laying,  to  postpone,  130. 

Learning  poultry  keeping^  12* 

Leg  bands,  207. 

Lice,  172,  214. 

Light  Brahmas,  description,  69. 

mating,  158. 
Lime,  air-slaked  on  droppings  boards,  127. 

and  sulphur  for  lice,  215. 
Linseed  meal,  97. 
Litter,  feeding  grain  in,  126. 
for  scratching  floor,  1.26. 
Liver  disease,  213. 
Localities  suited  to  chickens,  17. 

ducks,  235. 

geese,  249. 

turkeys,  222. 

Locating  for  business,  17. 
Location,  adapting  business  to,  19.   ' 

Malay  Games,  79. 
Mammoth  White  turkeys,  225. 
Market,  consideration  of  in  selecting  loca- 
tion, 17. 

eggs,  profit  in,  9. 
poultryman,  breeds  for,  82. 
stock,    selecting    breeders   to   produce, 

151, 

Marketing  ducks,  246. 
eggs,  18.7. 
poultry : 

chickens,  188. 
ducks,  246. 
geese,  256. 
turkeys,  230. 
Marking  chicks,  171. 
Mash,  value  of,  103. 
Mashes,  directions  for  making — see  Rations, 

105,  etc. 
elaborate  compounds   not  necessary  in, 

101. 
Materials  for  building,  buying,  5,1. 

lists  of.  for  buildings,  28,  31,  34,,  36^  39, 

41, 

Mating  Barred  P..  Rocks,  155. 
black  varieties,  160. 
Brown  Leghorns,  156. 
buff  varieties,  160. 
Colored  Indian  Games,  159, 
Dark  Brahmas,  158. 
ducks,  239. 
geese,  253, 
general  remarks  on,,  154, 


PO  UL  T£r-  CRAFT. 


269 


Mating  ^Golden  Wy*ndottes,  158. 

Hamburgs,  160. 

Houdans,  160. 

Light  Brahmas,  158. 

Partridge  Cochins,  159. 

Polish,  160. 

Silver  Wyandcttes,  158. 

Standard  fowls,  154. 

turkeys,  226. 

white  varieties,  160. 
Matings,  compromise,  148. 
Meal,  animal,  97. 

barley,  95. 

corn,  93. 

cotton  seed,  97. 

linseed,  97. 

oat,  95. 
Meat  breeds,  definition,  63. 

foods,  97. 

horse,  for  poultry  food,  97. 
Medicines,  keeping  supply  of,  214. 
Methods  of  feeding,  103. 

making  cut  in  killing,  191. 
Middlings,  buckwheat,  96. 

wheat,  94. 
Milk,  99. 
Millet  seed,  96. 
Millo  maize,  96. 
Minorcas,  74. 

Mistakes,  common  in  breeding,  147. 
Mixed  chop,  93. 

feed,  60. 

Moistening  eggs  during  incubation,  170. 
Moisture  in  incubators,  177. 
Mongrel  geese,  250,  254. 

hens,  61,  62. 
Monitor  top  house,  32. 
Mosquitos,  215. 
Mottled  Javas,  68. 
Moulting  hens,  feeding,  1219. 
Moving  laying  hens,  135. 

sitting  hens,  167. 
Muscovy  ducks,  239. 

Names  of  varieties,  abbreviations  of,  So. 
Narragansett  turkeys,  245. 
Nest  boxes,  53. 

eggs,  142. 

Nests  for  ducks,  236. 
geese,  354. 
turkeys,  226. 
keeping  clean,  127. 


New  blood,  introducing,  -153. 

breeds,  64. 

Nitrogenous  food,  definition ,  109. 
Non-popular  varieties  to  be  avoided  by  busi- 
ness breeders,  84 . 
Non-sitters,  64. 
Nursery  brooders,  47. 
Nutritive  ratio,  nu 

Oat  meal,  95. 

Oats,  94. 

Old  fowls  as  breeders,  90,  151. 

hens  as  layers,  139. 

which  to  keep,  139. 

stock,  buying,  90. 
Onions,  98. 
Orpingtons,  77. 
Oyster  shells,  100. 

Packing  dressed  poultry,  192. 
ducks  for  shipping,  247. 
eggs  for  hatching,  201. 
iced  poultry  in  warm  weather,  193. 
Paint,  52. 
Partridge  Cochins,  description,  71. 

mating,  159. 

Pedigree,  importance  df  in  breeding,  148. 
Pekin  Bantams,  see  Cochin  Bantams. 

ducks,  236. 
Picking,  dry  picking,  191. 

scalded  poultry,  191. 
Pip,  213. 
Pit  Games,  78. 
Plucking  false  or  foul  leathers,  205.  (Note). 

geese  for  the  feathers,  ^57. 
Plymouth  Rocks,  description,  64. 

mating  Barred,  1-55. 
Pneumonia,  213. 
Polish,  75. 

Bantams,  220. 
Pork  scraps,  97. 
Potatoes,  98. 
Potential  energy,  in. 
Poultry  business  as  an  investment,  *i» 
farming,  17. 
keeping  as  a  business,  7. 
as  an  adjunct,  10. 

employment,  n. 
for  pleasure,  13. 
children,  .15. 
invalids,  15. 
women,  14. 


270 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


Poultry  keeping,  how  to  learn,  12. 

selling  through  commission  merchants, 

189. 

Prepotency,  150. 

Preserving  eggs  not  advisable,  187. 
Preventing    common    ailments    of    young 

chicks,  180. 

disease,  general  rules  for,  210. 
f  Prices  of  (chicken)  eggs  and  stock,  9,  98, 

198. 

ducks,  and  duck  eggs,  239. 
geese,  and  goose  eggs,  253. 
Profit  in  bantams,  217. 
ducks,  234. 
geese,  250. 
hens,  9. 
turkeys,  222. 
Profitable  combination  in  poultry  keeping, 

9- 
Prolificacy,   consideration   of   in    selecting 

breeding  stock,  150. 
Proteids,  109. 
Protein,  109. 
Provender,  93. 

Puny  chicks  should  be  killed,  171. 
Pure  bred,  definition,  61. 

fowls,  relative  merits  of,  63. 

Quarantining  fowls,  210. 

Range  for  breeding  stock  : 
ducks,  240. 
geese,  254. 
hens,  162. 
turkeys,  227. 
young  chickens,  183. 
ducks,  246. 
geese,  255. 
turkeys,  228. 
Ration,  a  balanced,  101. 
changing  value  of,  120. 
narrow,  definition,  in. 
wide,  preferable,  117. 
Rations,  changing,  102. 

different  for  different   kinds  of  fowls, 
102. 

examples  in  balancing,  117. 
tested  for  breeding  stock  : 

ducks,  242. 

geese,  255. 

hens,  104. 

turkeys,  229. 


Rations,  tested  for  young  chicks,  106. 

ducklings,  244. 

goslings,  256. 

turkeys,  229.         .  ,;>  j. 
Rattling  in  the  throat,  213. 
Record,  keeping  an  egg,  142. 

of  hatches,  168. 
Redcaps,  76. 

Relative  merits  of  breeds,  63. 
Renting,  19. 

Risks  in  poultry  keeping,  8. 
Rhode  Island  Reds,  69. 
Rolled  oats,  95. 
Roofing  papers,  51. 
Roost,  teaching  chicks  to,  182. 
Roosting  coop  for  chicks,  58. 
Roosts,  53. 

for  young  turkeys,  228. 
on  warm  side  of  house,  39. 
Rose  Combed  Bantams,  219. 
Rouen  ducks,  238. 
Round  worm,  214. 
Roup,  214. 
Rumpless  fowls,  79. 
Russians,  79. 

Rye,  95. 

bran,  96. 

Scalding  ducks,  247. 

poultry,  191. 
Scaly  legs,  216. 
Scratching,  see  Exercise. 
litter,  what  to  use,  126. 
floor,  how  to  manage,  126. 
shed  house,  34. 

with  a  walk,  37. 
houses,  suggestions  for,  36. 
in  front  of  house,  28. 
under  house,  25. 
Screenings,  barley,  95. 

wheat,  93. 

Sebright  Bantams,  219. 
Second  floor  space,  use  of,  51. 
Selecting  breeders  to  produce  laying  stock, 
>^,   150- 

market  stock,  151. 

breeding  stock,  points  to  consider,  148. 
ducks  for  breeding,  240. 
geese  for  breeding,  253. 
turkeys  for  breeding,  226. 
hens  for  sitters,  166. 
laying  stock,  124. 


PO  UL  TR  T-  CRAFT. 


271 


Selection   the    first   principle  in    breeding, 

H6»  '53- 

of  fowls  for  exhibition,  204. 
Selling  breeding  and  exhibition  stock,  197. 
eggs  and  poultry,  general  remarks,  186. 

for  hatching,  200. 
ducks,  246. 

exhibition  and  breeding  turkeys,  233. 
geese,  256. 
inferior  poultry,  194. 
market  turkeys,  239. 
poultry  and  eggs  to  family  trade,  193. 
stock  by  the  score,  198. 
C.  O.  D.,  197. 
on  approval,  199. 
Semi-monitor  top  house,  34. 
Separating  the  sexes  while  growing,  182. 
Separation  the  object  of  selection,  147. 
Setting  hens,  167. 
Sex,  control  of,  152. 
Sexes,  separating,  182. 
Shape,  importance  of,  148. 
Shell,  boxes  for,  56. 

oyster,  100. 
Shelter  for: 

geese,  250. 
goslings,  255. 
poultry  house,  21. 
turkeys,  222. 
Shingles,  51. 

Shipping  dressed  poultry  to  market,  190. 
eggs  for  hatching,  201. 

to  market,  187. 
fowls  to  shows,  207. 
high  class  fowls,  199. 
live  poultry  to  market,  190. 
Short  days,  difficulty  in  feeding  on,  133. 
Shorts,  94. 

Sick  hens  going  broody,  140. 
Silkies,  79. 

Silver  Duckwing  Leghorns,  74. 
Gray  Dorkings,  77. 
Penciled  Hamburgs,  75. 

Polish,  75. 
Spangled  Hamburgs,  75. 

Polish,  75. 
Wyandottes,  description,  67. 

mating,  158. 
Sites  for  duck  houses,  235. 

goose  growing,  249. 
Sitting  hens,  care  and  food  of,  168. 
Situation,  general  remarks  on,  20. 


Size  and  laying  qualities,  124. 

importance  of,  in  breeding  stock,  149. 
Slate  turkeys,  224. 
Snow,  effects  on  fowls,  132. 
Soils  suited  for  poultry  keeping,  21. 
Sorghum  seed,  96. 
Spanish,  White  Faced  Black,  75. 
Squab  broilers,  189. 
Standard  fowls,  mating,  154. 

of  food  values,  115. 
Perfection,  79. 

Standard  bred,  definition,  61. 
Stationery,  the  breeders',  197. 
Stimulants,  99,  116. 
Sulphur  and  lime  for  lice,  215. 
Sultans,  79. 
Sumatras,  79. 

Sunlight,  importance  of,  21. 
Surplus  stock  house,  49. 
Sweet  potatoes,  98. 

Tape  worms,  214. 

in  turkeys,  232. 
Temperature  of  brooder,  180. 

egg  chamber,  176. 
Tested  rations,  see  Rations. 
Testers,  egg,  169. 
Testing  eggs,  169. 

foods,  97. 

varieties,  82. 

Thoroughbred,  definition,  61. 
Tobacco  for  lice,  215. 
Tonics,  99. 
Toulouse  geese,  254. 
Town  lot,  breeds  for,  86. 

cheap  house  for,  24. 
Troughs,  feed,  54. 
Turkeys  adapted  to  all  sections,  222. 

care  of  laying,  226. 
young,  228. 

catching,  231. 

diseases  of,  231. 

dressing  for  market,  231. 

feeding  from  shell  to  market,  228. 

ground  suitable  for,  222. 

hatching,  227. 

houses  for,  222. 

keeping  in  confinement,  224. 

market  for,  230. 

mating,  226. 

profit  in,  222. 

raising  artificially,  227. 


POUL  TRT-CRAFT. 


Turkeys,  varieties  described,  224. 

yards. for,  224. 

Turning  eggs  in  incubators,  178. 
Two-pen  poultry  house,  ,38. 

Values  of  food  stuffs  (table),  a  12. 

Variety  of  food  needed,  aoi . 

Variation,  law  of,  144. 

Variationr  from  feeding  standards,  116. 

Vegetable  foods,  98. 

Ventilating  duck  e^gs,  243. 

in  cold  weaxher,  135. 
Ventilation  in  incubators,  177. 

of  incubator  cellar,  46. 
Ventilators,  51. 

Wages  on  poultry  plants,  n. 
Walk,  continuous  house  with  a,  30. 
plan  for  doing  work  from,  32. 
scratching  shed  house  with  a,  37. 
Warming  drinking  water,  135. 

grain,  135. 

Washing  show  birds,  305. 
Waste  bread,  9.7. 
Water  for  ducks,  240,  242. 
geese,  254. 
young  chicks,  173. 
supply  for  large  plant,  45. 
Weaning  chicks,  181. 
Weather  changes,  anticipating,  ^13.1. 
effect  of  on  ;egg  production,  123. 
Weight  of  breeding  stock,  149. 
Weights  preferred  for  market  pouhry,  189. 
What  most  breeders  can  do,  84. 
the  markets  want : 

ducks,  240,  246. 
chickens,  189. 
fgceae,  249,  ,254. 
turkeys,  230. 

to  do  when  it  snows,  132. 
Wheat,  92. 


Wheat,  damaged,  92. 

screenings,  92. 
When  to  buy  breeding  geese,  ,253. 

stock,  89. 
Whey,  99. 
White  Bantams,  219. 

Crested  Black  Polish,  75, 

Cochins,  71. 

Dorkings,  77. 

eggs,  where  in  demand,  82. 

Faced  Black  Spanish,  75. 

Hamburgs,  76. 

Holland  turkeys,  224. 

Langshans,  72. 

Leghorns,  73. 

Minorcas,  74. 

.Muscovy  ducks,  236. 

Orpingtons,  78. 

Plymouth  Rocks,  65. 

Polish,  75. 

varieties,  mating,  160. 

Wonders,  68. 

Wyandottes,  67. 
Whitewash,  128. 
Wild  geese,  253. 
Wind  puffs,  214. 
Winter  eggs,  123,  131. 
Worms,  214. 

Women  as  poultry  keepers,  14. 
Wyandottes,  descriptions,  67. 

mating,  158 

Yard  room,  50. 
Yards,  alternate,  21. 
cleaning,  127. 
colony  plan  with,  26. 
for  ducks,  -235. 
geese,  249. 
goslings,  256. 
turkeys,  224. 
Yolks,  pale,  142. 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


r$ 


AN     INITIAL     FINE     OF     25     CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  5O  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


MAS    7   1933 
MAR    8    1933 


ocr  $ 


LD  21-50m-l,'33 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


